17   t,06 


LIBRARY 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


OK 


Accession     102527  Class 


i 


SCHOOL   ADMINISTRATION  IN 
MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT 


BY 

FRANK  ROLLINS,  A.  B. 


SUBMITTED   IN   PARTIAL   FULFILLMENT   OF  THE   REQUIREMENTS 
FOR   THE    DEGREE   OF   DOCTOR   OF   PHILOSOPHY 

IN  THE 

FACULTY  OF  PHILOSOPHY 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


NKW  YORK 
JUNK,  19O2 


SCHOOL   ADMINISTRATION  IN 
MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT 


BY 

FRANK  ROLLINS,  A.  B. 


SUBMITTED   IN   PARTIAL   FULFILLMENT   OF  THE   REQUIREMENTS 
FOR   THE   DEGREE   OF   DOCTOR   OF   PHILOSOPHY 

IN  THE 

FACULTY  OF  PHILOSOPHY 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


YORK: 

JUNK,  19O2 


I--' 


' 


. 


PREFACE 


WHILE  various  phases  of  school  administration  in  cities 
have  engaged  the  attention  of  educators  and  of  writers  on 
municipal  government,  no  one  seems  to  have  undertaken  a 
study  of  the  entire  subject.  Educators  have  laid  stress 
mainly  upon  the  pedagogic  side  of  administration,  and  stu- 
dents of  municipal  problems  have  treated  education  as 
merely  incidental  to  their  main  theme. 

The  following  paper  is  the  result  of  a  study  of  school 
administration  in  its  immediate  relation  to  municipal  govern- 
ment. No  attempt  has  been  made  to  treat  the  subject  from 
an  historical  point  of  view,  except  in  so  far  as  was  necessary 
to  explain  present  conditions,  and  reference  has  been  made 
to  foreign  school  systems  only  when  such  reference  served  to 
suggest  possible  improvements  in  our  own. 

In  the  pursuit  of  this  investigation,  I  have  made  use  of 
such  materials  as  were  at  hand  in  the  proceedings  of  educa- 
tional congresses  or  associations,  in  reports  of  state  or 
national  departments  of  education,  in  the  school  laws  of 
colonies  or  states,  and  in  various  publications  on  municipal 
government.  Full  acknowledgment  for  the  help  of  all  pub- 
lications consulted  is  made  in  the  frequent  references  in  the 
body  of  the  paper  and  in  the  bibliography  at  its  end.  I  am 
particularly  indebted  to  the  many  superintendents  and  other 
school  officers  throughout  the  United  States  who  have  given 
me,  through  personal  correspondence,  the  facts  tabulated  in 
Chapters  II  and  IV  and  the  suggestions,  fresh  from  the  field, 
collected  in  the  Appendix.  As  these  suggestions  were  made 
51  5 


102527 


6  PREFACE  [6 

in  confidence,  it  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  the  well-known 
names  of  the  writers  cannot  be  attached  to  them. 

In  the  treatment  of  each  chapter,  the  general  method  of 
this  study  has  been  to  obtain  and  record  a  body  of  facts ;  to 
collect  and  compare  expert  opinions  relating  to  the  facts  and 
their  results,  and  to  draw  such  general  conclusions  as  seemed 
warranted.  F.  R. 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY, 

New  York,  April,  1902. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  INTEREST  OF  THE  STATE  IN  THE  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 
OF   CITIES 

PAGE 

Rapid  tendency  toward  urban  and  sub-urban  life 14 

Heterogeneous  population  of  cities 1 6 

Current  of  population  from  country  to  city 17 

Current  of  morals,  religion,  and  social  customs  from  city  to 

country 17 

Cities  have  no  inherent  right  of  self-government    ......  18 

State  support  of  city  schools 18 

State's  right  of  control  in  essentials , 19 

CHAPTER   II 

THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  OR  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

Relation  of  the  board  to  the  state  and  to  the  municipal  gov- 
ernment    21 

Tabular  statement  of  city  school  systems  in  all  cities  of  one 

hundred  thousand  and  more  inhabitants 24 

Tabular  statement  for  an  equal  number  of  smaller  cities    ...  28 

Manner  of  selecting  boards 33 

Terms  of  service 34 

Provisions  for  gradual  change 35 

Size  of  boards •  36 

Powers,  duties,  and  responsibilities 38 

-Standing  committees 41 

.Salaried  boards 44 

Local  or  District  Boards 46 

71  7 


8                                                    CONTENTS  [g 
CHAPTER  III 

ADMINISTRATION   OF   EXTERNAL   OR    BUSINESS  AFFAIRS 

PAGE 

Superintendent  of  buildings 53 

Sites 53 

Designs 54 

Construction  and  repairs 54 

Janitorial  service    . 54 

School  supplies 56 

CHAPTER  IV 

SUPERVISORY    ADMINISTRATION 

Superintendent  of  Schools 58 

Origin  of  office 58 

Qualifications      58 

Manner  of  choosing 59 

Length  of  term  and  tenure  of  office 59 

Powers  and  duties 61 

Relation  to  teachers 65 

Relation  to  board 66 

Relation  to  community 67 

Assistant  or  associate  superintendent 67 

Tabulation  for  twenty-five  cities 68 

Nomination  and  election,  or  appointment 68 

Tenure  of  office 68 

Relation  to  administration 68 

Compulsory  education  and  truancy 70 

CHAPTER  V 

ADMINISTRATION   OF   INSTRUCTION   AND   DISCIPLINE 

Principals 73 

Qualifications,  nomination,  and  appointment 73 

Tenure  of  office      74 

Relation  to  board 74 

Relation  to  superintendent 74 


9] 


CONTENTS 


Relation  to  teachers  and  to  the  community 77 

Teachers      80 

Qualifications  and  appointment        80 

Advancement  and  tenure  of  office 82 

Relation  to  administration  and  to  the  community 83 

CHAPTER  VI 

THE   SCHOOL   AND    THE   COMMUNITY 

Social  service  of  the  community  to  the  school 84 

Education  society,  Brookline,  Mass 86 

Public  School  Union,  St.  Paul,  Minn 87 

Public  Education  Association  of  Philadelphia 87 

Public  Education  Society,  New  York  City 88 

The  French  Caisses  des  Ecoles  and  other  forms  of  service  to 

the  schools 88 

Social  service  of  school  to  community 90 

The  school  to  approach  and  attract  the  people 91 

Schools  open  for  other  purposes  than  daily  sessions 91 

Public  libraries 91 

Lectures  and  receptions     . 91 

Meetings  of  parents  and  teachers  for  conference  and  for  inspec- 
tion of  ordinary  work  well  done 92 

Home  visitation,  especially  in  sickness  and  distress 92 

Assisting  pupils  to  obtain  employment 93 

Interest  in  advancement  of  graduates 93 

Alumni  associations    , 93 

Centralization   and  de-centralization  of  authority  and  effects 

upon  popular  interest ' 94 

CHAPTER  VII 

SUMMATION   AND   CONCLUSIONS 

Duty  of  the  state  to  regulate  city  school  administration  in  the 

interests  of  the  people 95 

Small  boards  of  education,  appointed  by  mayor  for  long  terms 

with  gradual  change,  large  powers,  and  fixed  responsibility  .  96 


CONTENTS 


[IO 


Routine  of  business  administration  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
paid  experts  ..........  .  .........  96 

High  standard  of  qualification  for  supervising  and  teaching 
force,  ascertained  by  exacting  tests  to  be  followed  by  large 
authority  and  secure  tenure  of  office  ..........  96 

A  large  mutual  service  of  neighborhood  and  school    .....      97 

APPENDIX 

Suggestions  from  school  officers   .............      99 

BIBLIOGRAPHY      ....................    104 

VITA    ........................     107 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  INTEREST  OF  THE  STATE   IN  THE  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRA- 
TION OF  CITIES. 

To  understand  the  present  conditions  of  school  adminis- 
tration in  cities,  it  is  necessary  to  trace  briefly  the  develop- 
ment of  such  administration  from  its  sources  in  early  rural 
and  village  communities.  As  in  the  development  of  living 
organisms,  parts  and  organs  persist  which  are  no  longer 
useful  and  are  sometimes  inconvenient  and  even  harmful  .to 
the  individual,  so  in  educational  systems  customs  and  forms 
of  organization  prevail  which  were  well  adapted  to  primitive 
conditions,  but  are  inconvenient  and  injurious  in  more 
highly  developed  systems. 

The  early  colonial  schools  came  into  being  in  response  to 
an  earnest  desire  on  the  part  of  the  first  settlers  that  their 
children  should  be  instructed  in  learning  and  in  piety.1  The 
schools  were  managed  directly  by  the  local  authorities  of 
each  settlement  for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half,  till  the 
increasing  size  of  the  towns  rendered  it  impossible  for  every 
citizen  to  take  a  personal  interest  in  every  school  of  his 
colony. 

The  school,  however,  had  been  a  social  and  political 
center  of  the  community,  and  colonists  were  loath  to  give  up 
their  connection  with  such  an  institution.  Hence  arose  the 
district  system,  recognized  by  law  in  1789*  In  rapid  suc- 

1  The  General  Laws  of  the  Massachusetts  Colony,  1642,  reprinted  by  the  order 
of  Boston  Common  Council,  1889,  p.  136.     See  Law  of  1647,  Ibid.,  p.  190. 

2  Laws  of  Mass.,  1789,  chapter  xix,  sec.  2. 

li]  II 


12  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [I2 

cession  the  rights  of  local  taxation,3  corporate  organization,4 
and  local  election  and  legislation5  were  given  to  these  dis- 
tricts. All  this,  as  Superintendent  Martin  observes,6  "  marks 
the  utmost  limit  to  the  subdivision  of  American  sovereignty, 
the  high  water  mark  of  modern  democracy,  and  the  low 
water  mark  of  the  Massachusetts  school  system." 

The  location  and  building  of  the  school  house,  the  elec- 
tion of  district  officers,  the  selection  of  the  teacher,  the 
furnishing  of  the  fuel  and  other  supplies  became  subjects 
of  neighborhood  politics ;  and  these  matters  were  most 
thoroughly  discussed,  if  not  always  well  provided  for.  The 
school  thus  became  a  means  of  social  and  political  education 
to  the  adults  as  well  as  of  scholastic  education  to  the  chil- 
dren. Part  of  the  educative  influence  usually  ascribed  to  the 
New  England  town  meeting  no  doubt  belongs  to  the  district 
school  meeting.  The  writer  as  a  child  had  the  privilege  of 
attending  some  of  these  district  meetings,  and  remembers 
that  deliberations  involving  a  total  annual  expenditure  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  or  two  hundred  dollars  were  con- 
ducted with  an  evident  devotion  to  the  public  good  and  a 
decorum  which  he  has  never  seen  equaled  in  city  councils  or 
state  legislatures. 

Although  the  district  system  led  to  the  most  shameful 
abuse  and  neglect  of  the  children's  welfare,7  it  is  not  hard  to 
see  why  that  system  was  adhered  to  so  tenaciously  by 
Americans  jealous  of  the  slightest  invasion  of  the  right  of 
self  government.  Mixed  with  narrow  and  selfish  motives 

3  Laws  of  Mass.,  Feb.  28,  1800. 
^  Ibid.,  June  13,  1817. 

5  Ibid.,  Mar.  10,  1827. 

6  The  Evolution  of  the  Massachusetts  Public  School  System,  D.  Appleton  &  Co., 
1 894,  p.  92. 

7  See  Report  of  Samuel  Young,  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  State  of 
N.  Y.,  1844,  p.  5. 


13]  THE  INTEREST  OF  THE  STATE  j^ 

was  something  of  the  spirit  which  wrested  independence 
from  England  in  1776  and  defended  it  in  1812,  the  spirit 
which  has  caused  the  great  difference  between  national 
political  parties,  and  has  safeguarded  by  constitutional  enact- 
ment 8  the  right  of  self  government  of  the  states.  This  same 
jealous  regard  for  local  political  rights  has  maintained  the 
district  and  ward  system  of  school  administration  even  to  the 
hurt  of  the  schools.  So  long  as  towns  and  villages  were 
small,  the  publicity  and  common  knowledge  of  all  local 
affairs  prevented  corruption  in  branches  of  administration 
and  insured  a  fair  degree  of  economy ;  but  as  methods  of 
administration  provided  for  villages  were  continued  after 
villages  grew  to  be  cities,  inevitable  corruption,  inefficiency, 
and  waste  ensued.  Nor  was  there  commonly  to  be  found 
within  the  city  itself  the  force  of  public  opinion  to  accom- 
plish necessary  reforms.  Resort  was  then  had  to  the  state 
legislature  for  charter  provisions  to  check  abuses  and  to 
provide  for  efficiency  and  economy  of  administration.  Such 
appeal  to  the  authority  of  the  state  has  been  made  necessary 
both  by  the  greed  of  invested  capital  seeking  to  escape  local 
taxation,  and  by  the  ignorance  and  indifference  of  the  un- 
ambitious masses.  Thus  it  has  happened  that  more  and 
more  the  state  has  assumed  and  exercised  the  right  to 
establish  the  great  and  essential  features  of  city  school 
systems. 

It  is  not  uncommon  in  American  cities  to  hear  objection 
to  state  interference  in  school  matters  and  in  other  municipal 
affairs,  as  if  the  city  had  some  inherent  right  to  self  govern- 
ment such  as  belongs  to  the  state  itself.9  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  the  state  was  the  original  unit  of 
government  in  this  country,  and  that  states,  not  cities,  com- 
bined to  establish  the  Federal  Union.  What,  then,  are  some 

8  Amendments  to  the  Constitution,  Article  X. 

9  Bryce,  The  American  Commomvealth,  Macmillan  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1888,  p.  303. 


MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


of  the  reasons  why  the  state  should  concern  itself  with  muni- 
cipal school  administration? 

The  rapid  increase  of  urban  population  in  the  United 
States  has  made  municipal  government  a  subject  of  vital 
national  interest.  The  census  of  1790  showed  that  only 
3.35  per  cent,  of  our  people  lived  in  cities  of  eight  thousand 
or  more  inhabitants;  but  from  the  census  of  1900  it  appears 
that  33.1  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the  United  States 
live  in  such  cities.  The  tendency  toward  city  dwelling 
during  eleven  decades,  may  easily  be  seen  from  the  accom- 


30 


10 


/mo 

Vertical  spaces  represent  percentage  of  population  in  cities  of  8,000  or 
more  inhabitants. 

panying  curve10  representing  the  percentage  of  the  whole 
population  inhabiting  cities,  from  the  first  to  the  latest 
census.  This  method  of  representation  has  the  advantage 
of  showing  approximately  the  per  cent,  of  urban  population 
for  any  given  year,  and  incidentally  what  modification  may 
be  expected  in  that  percentage  in  the  near  future.  From  the 


10  Plotted  from  data  in  the  reports  of  the  U.  S.  census  since  1790. 


I  5]  THE  INTEREST  OF  THE  STA  TE  l  $ 

plotted  curve  it  will  be  seen  that  during  every  decade,  ex- 
cept one,  there  has  been  an  actual  increase  in  the  per  cent, 
of  city  dwellers.  From  1810  to  1820,  the  War  of  1812 
diverted  both  capital  and  labor  from  centers  of  population, 
hence  there  was  no  relative  increase  of  urban  population 
during  that  time.  The  great  financial  panic  of  1873  ruined 
employers,  paralyzed  trade,  and  drove  wage-earners  from 
cities  to  less  remunerative  employment  and  less  expensive 
homes  in  rural  communities.  Meanwhile  the  reinforcements, 
which  urban  labor  usually  receives  from  the  country,  were 
excluded  from  the  cities  by  lack  of  profitable  employment 
there;  hence  there  appears  a  somewhat  diminished  rate  of 
increase  of  city  dwellers  for  that  decade.  The  percentage  of 
city  population  for  the  last  decade,  1890  to  1900,  shows  a 
somewhat  smaller  rate  of  increase  than  for  the  preceding 
decade.  This  may  be  due  in  part  to  the  financial  difficulties 
of  1893,  that  followed  the  financial  legislation  of  that  year; 
but  in  large  measure  this  apparently  diminished  tendency 
toward  city  life  was  probably  due  to  the  large  increase  of 
suburban  population  made  possible  by  improved  local  train 
service,11  by  the  rapid  development  of  trolley  lines,  by  the 
construction  of  good  roads,  and  by  the  general  use  of  the 
bicycle  among  working-men  and  other  people  of  moderate 
means.  Now  this  large  and  rapidly  increasing  suburban 
population  is  practically  an  organic  part  of  the  city  popula- 
tion, and  the  two  combined  would  probably  include  nearly 
half  the  people  of  the  United  States.12  From  the  foregoing 
considerations  it  is  evident  that  municipal  administration  is 

11  By  Social  Statistics  of  Cities,  Eleventh  census,  p.  50,  1135  suburban  trains 
run  to  and  from  N.  Y.  City  daily.     For  Boston,  the  number  is  854;   for  Philadel- 
phia, 790;  and  for  Chicago,  733. 

12  For  similar  tendency  in  Great  Britain,  see  Shaw's  Municipal  Government  in 
G.  B.,  p.  12  et  seg. 

For  the  continent,  see  Shaw's  Mun.  Gov.  in  Continental  Europe,  pp.  293  to 
296. 


1 6  MUNICIPAL  SCHO OL  ADMINISTRA  TION  [  j  6 

a  matter  of  highest  importance  to  the  nation  and  the  state ; 
and  since  intelligence  and  morality  constitute  the  very 
foundations  of  nation  and  state  among  free  people,  muni- 
cipal administration  of  educational  affairs  must  also  be  a 
matter  of  supreme  importance. 

Mere  accumulation  of  numbers,  however,  does  not  consti- 
tute the  chief  claim  of  municipal  administration  to  the 
interest  of  the  entire  state.  Large  cities  are  made  up  of 
heterogeneous  populations,  often  so  -mixed  with  recently 
acquired  foreign  elements^that  the  city  population  by  itself 
is  quite  un-American.  Nevertheless,  even  in  cities  so  largely 
foreign  in  population,  American  customs  and  institutions 
must  be  presefved  for  the  sake  of  national  unity;  and 
American  residents,  especially  of  the  poorer  and  middle 
classes,  must  be  assured  of  conditions  among  which  they 
may  give  their  children  respectable  homes  and  a  suitable 
education.  Moreover,  voters  and  even  members  of  the  city 
government  are  often  not  tax-payers.  An  investigation 
made  in  Boston  in  i89-2,™showed  thar  less  than  two-fifths  of 
the  voters  were^tax-payers,  and  that  sixty- two  out  of  eighty- 
seven  members  of  the  city  legislative  bodies  "  had  no  visible 
j  property  "  ; I3  and  this,  it  will  be  noted,  was  the  condition  of 
affairs  in  one  of  the  most  conservative  of  American  cities. 
It  can  hardly  be  expected  that  voters  and  legislators  without 
property  interests  will  feel  the  greatest  weight  of  responsibi- 
lity ;  hence  states  have  found  it  necessary  to  limit  both  tax- 
rates  and  debts  of  cities  I4  lest  the  rights  of  property  should 
be  too  far  invaded  by  municipal  legislators.  On  the  other 
hand,  large  concentration  of  wealth,  often  accompanied  by 
dominant  political  influence,  may  become  a  source  of  danger 
to  the  welfare  of  the  many.  Hence  a  larger  geographical 

13  Morrison,  Municipal  Government  a    Corporate,  not  a   Political  Problem, 
Forum  XIII,  791. 

u  Laws  of  Mass,,  1885,  Chapter  312,  Sees.  2  and  3. 


1 7]  THE  INTEREST  OF  THE  STATE  lj 

unit  than  the  city  should  be  the  final  authority  for  certain 
large  and  general  provisions  of  municipal  government.  The 
undoubted  right  of  nations  to  self  government,  even  bad 
self  government,  is  not  an  inherent  right  of  cities  which  are 
but  corporate  parts  of  the  state.  So  universal  is  the  accept- 
ance of  this  principle  as  applied  to  education,  that  all  the 
states  have  included  in  their  constitutions15  provisions  relat- 
ing to  education. 

But  the  state  at  large  has  a  deeper  cause  for  interest  in 
the  affairs  of  its  municipalities  than  may  be  found  either 
in  numbers  or  in  wealth.  The  rural  state  pays  to  the  cities 
an  annual  tribute  far  more  precious  than  was  ever  exacted 
by  ancient  monarch  or  feudal  liege.  Every  year  large 
numbers  of  the  brightest  and  most  enterprising  boys  and 
girls  from  farm  and  village  homes  seek  higher  education 
or  their  life  work  in  the  city.  „  Few  of  these  ever  return 
permanently  to  the  neighborhoods  from  which  they  came. 
They  find  in  the  city  the  influences  that  make  or  mar  their 
future  welfare,  and  there  must  their  children  be  reared. 
The  fathers  and  mothers  who  have  given  their  sons  and 
daughters  to  swell  the  city's  multitude  of  toilers  and  learn- 
ers, can  best  'understand  the  interest  of  the  state  at  large 
in  the  city's  education  and  morality.  Local  option  in  edu- 
cation or  in  the  exploiting  of  vice  or  its  accessories  will 
find  but  few  advocates  among  those  rural  people  whose 
children  and  children's  children  must  share  the  city's  good 
or  ill.  The  rural  state  is  still  further  interested  in  the  city, 
because  the  country  draws  its  new  ideas  of  manners,  morals, 
and  religion  from  the  city.  Everybody  knows  how  quickly 
the  latest  popular  song,  the  latest  fashion,  the  newest  slang, 
or  the  latest  social  fad,  as  well  as  the  latest  variation  of  reli- 
gious endeavor  or  worship,  is  caught  up  by  the  country, 

13  A.  S.  Draper,  Education  in  the  U.  £.,  I,  19,  J.  B.  Lyon  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y., 
1900. 


!8  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

when  once  the  city  has  approved  it.  The  state  owes  to 
itself  the  duty  of  keeping  pure  the  fountains  of  its  social,  in- 
tellectual, and  religious  life. 

Most  states  contribute  large  amounts  annually  to  the  sup- 
port of  city  schools.16  Some  states,  as  Washington,  Texas, 
Tennessee,  New  Jersey,  and  Virginia,  contribute  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  of  all  the  money  spent  for  schools  in  their 
cities. 

The  support  thus  given  by  the  states  and  received  by  the 
municipality  clearly  establishes  the  right  as  well  as  the  duty 
of  the  state  to  require  an  adequate  return  for  money  thus  in- 
vested and  to  provide  for  a  wise  and  economical  use  of 
school  funds.  By  economical  use  is  intended,  not  so  much 
the  restriction  of  expenditure,  as  the  enlargement  of  profit- 
able returns. 

I  While  the  state  must  accomplish  its  work  for  education 
largely  through  municipal  agents,  it  must  also  prevent,  so 
far  as  possible,  any  mixing  of  local  politics  with  educational 
interests.  To  this  end  the  development  of  education  must 
be  made  as  independent  as  possible  of  other  departments  of 
municipal  government.17  It  seems  to  be  rather  easier  to 
separate  school  affairs  from  other  municipal  interests  than 
to  make  such  separation  of  other  departments ;  for  the 
people  are  anxious  that  their  children  shall  not  be  deprived 
of  the  advantages  of  comfortable  school  houses  and  good 
teaching  by  any  form  of  jobbery  or  robbery  which  might  be 
tolerated  in  a  department  where  some  rods  of  pavement,  or 
a  few  policemen  more  or  less  might  be  the  chief  issue. 

The  great  and  influential  middle  class  of  the  city  has  a 
double  interest-  in  the  honest  and  efficient  administration,  of 
school  affairs;  first  in  securing  the  best  schools  possible-in 
return  for  taxes  paid,  and  second  in  maintaining  public 

16  Report  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Ed.,  1898-9,  ii,  1536  to  1547."  ^ 

17  See  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Circular  of  Information,  1885,  no.  5. 


I9]  THE  INTEREST  OF  THE  STATE  ICj 

schools  that  are  good  enough  for  their  own  children ;  thus 
avoiding  the  double  burden  of  paying  taxes  to  the  city  and 
tuition  to  private  schools.  In  regard  to  most  departments 
of  municipal  government,  the  ordinary  citizen  has  only  a 
very  general  interest  in  preventing  the  misappropriation  of 
public  funds,  unless  he  finds  his  own  immediate  comfort  or 
rights  interfered  with.  But  in  matters  of  public  education, 
misappropriation  or  mal-administration  is  in  itself  an  invasion 
of  the  comfort  and  personal  rights  of  every  citizen/ 

If  the  disastrous  effects  of  politics  can  be  eliminated  from 
one  department  of  municipal  government,  it  may  be  hoped 
that  still  other  departments  maybe  saved  eventually  from 
place-hunters  and  plunderers. 

As  a  further  safeguard  for  the  municipal  school  system  the 
state  possesses,  and  may  exercise,  the  right  to  separate  the 
I  officers  'of  the  department  of  education  into  legislative  and 
administrative  bodies;  and  may  even  further  sub-divide 
these.  For  example,  the  administrative  body  may  well  be 
separated  into  administrators  of  business  affairs  and  admin- 
istrators of  pedagogical  affairs.  Such  division  is  commonly 
made  in  the  largest  cities ; l8  and  wherever  such  division  is 
possible  more  expert  service  may  be  devoted  to  each  branch 
of  the  work,  and  departments  may  serve  as  checks  and 
balances  against  each  other.  In  some  of  the  largest  cities  it 
is  found  necessary  to  divide  the  business  administration  still 
further  into  a  department  of  buildings,  and  a  department  of 
school  supplies. T9 

The  state,  by  special  charter  provisions,  or  by  general* 
statute,  may  very  properly  provide  against  revolutionary 
changes  in  the  constitution  of  a  municipal  department  of 
education.  Such  provision  is  very  commonly  made20  by 

•B  School  Law  of  Indiara.     F.  L.  Jones,  Indianapolis,  1901,  p.  180. 

19  N,  Y.  Laws  of  1 901,  chapter  466,  section  1067. 

20  See  tabulation,  p.  — . 


20  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [2Q 

causing  some  definite  part  of  the  board  to  be  selected  at 
:  stated  periods.  By  this  means,  even  if  a  bi-partisan  board 
is  not  secured,  the  political  changes  within  the  board  must 
lag  somewhat  behind  the  corresponding  changes  in  munici- 
pal politics  and  the  disasters  of  sudden  revolutions  of  policy 
are  averted.  A  considerable  part  of  the  board  would  always 
be  possessed  of  a  fair  amount  of  experience  and  of  the  cau- 
tion which  naturally  results  from  continued  responsibility. 

Moreover,  the  political  composition  pf  the  board  would 
often  be  opposed  to  that  of  the  general' municipal  govern- 
ment, and  this  would  compel  a  conservative  and  defensible 
policy  on  the  part  of  the  board. 

Since  local  parsimony  may  seriously  restrict  the  proper 
development  of  school  systems,  the  state  may  assume  the* 
?  right  to  prescribe  a  minimum  tax  rate,21  the  proceeds  of 
which  shall  be  devoted  to  education  or  to  the  support  of 
some  particular  part  of  the  educational  system.  Local  taxes 
may  be  raised  to  supplement  the  amount  raised  by  the 
state ;  but  such  local  taxes  will  be'reduced  by  state  aid  and 
will  be  the  more'  patiently  borne  because  the  state  seems  to 
carry  so  much  of  the  burden  of  public  education. 

The  special  agencies  by  which  the  statue  administers  the 
school  systems  of  cities  will  be  considered  in  the  next  four 
chapters. 

21  N^  Y.  Laws  of  i go it  chapter  466,  section  1064.  Revised  Statutes  of  Indiana* 
1897,  sec-  6167. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  OR  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

IN  all  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States,  except  Buf- 
falo, N.  Y.,  the  authority  of  the  state  in  educational  affairs  is 
conferred  by  charter  upon  a  body  of  citizens  variously  known 
as  the  board  of  education,  the  school  board,  the  school  com- 
mittee, the  board  of  school  directors,  the  board  of  school 
trustees,  the  board  of  public  education,  the  board  of  public 
schools,  and  the  board  of  school  controllers. 

This  body  of  citizens,  which  we  shall  hereafter  designate 
as  the  board  of  education,  stands  in  peculiar  relation  to  the 
municipal  government.  While  within  the  city  government, 
it  is  not  of  that  government,  but  by  charter  provisions  is 
usually  made  more  independent  than  most  boards,  commis- 
sions, or  departments.  According  to  former  Commissioner 
of  Education,  John  Eaton :  "  The  separation  of  school  ad- 
ministration from  other  municipal  affairs  has  resulted  in  ex- 
cellent city  schools  in  spite  of  great  defects  in  municipal 
government."1  The  reasons  for  such  separation  have  been 
stated  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Large  powers  are  delegated  to  this  board  and  a  large 
burden  of  responsibility  is  laid  upon  it.  So  important  are 
the  functions  of  this  body  that  one  of  the  most  prominent 
writers  on  this  subject  has  declared :  "  As  is  your  school 
board,  so  are  your  schools." 2  Another  writer3  considers  the 

1  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Circular  of  Information,  1885,  p.  5. 

2  John  D.  Philbrick,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circulars  of  information, 
1885,  p.  14. 

3  A.  P.  Marble,  in  Educational  Review,  Sept.,  1894,  p.  159. 

21]  21 


22  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [22 

board  of  education  of  so  great  importance  that  he  would 
have  qualifications  for  membership  in  such  boards  pre- 
scribed by  state  law,  as  qualifications  of  president  and  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States,  and  of  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives in  congress  are  prescribed  by  the  Constitution. 
No  doubt  this  plan  would^  aid  in  securing  for  school  admin- 
istration the  services  of  men  of  liberal  education,  broad  ex- 
perience, and  proved  ability;  and  at  the  same  time  might 
be  achieved  the  no  less  valuable  result  of  excluding  from  the 
board  immature  aspirants  for  political  or  professional  ad- 
vancement, and  the  ignorant  and  incompetent  of  every  age 
and  condition.  In  view  of  the  manifest  advantages  of  statu- 
tory qualifications  for  members  of  the  board,  it  is  worthy  of 
note  that  this  suggestion  has  already  been  incorporated  in 
f  the  school  laws  of  one  state.4 

Among  the  various  methods  of  choosing  a  board  of  edu- 
cation, by  far  the  most  common  is  by  popular  vote,  candi- 
dates being  nominated  from  the  city  at  large  or  from  wards 
or  sub-districts.  From  the  tabulation  pp.  24-31,  itwill.be 
seen  that  55  cities  choose  their  boards  in  this  way,  28  elect- 
ing from  wards  or  sub-districts,  24  from  the  city  at  large/and 
3  by  a  combination  of  these  plans.  It  may  be  said  in  favor 
of  popular  election  that  the.  people  are  thus  made  to  partic- 
ipate directly  in  the  control  of  school  affairs  and  that  their 
interest  and  sense  of  responsibility  are  thus  fostered.  This 
plan  is  also  consistent  with  the  democratic  idea  of  leaving  as 
much  power  as  may  be  directly  in  the  hands  of  the  people. 
Necessary  reforms  might  be  made  with  despatch  by  repre- 
sentatives in  close  touch  with  the  local  needs  and  desires. 
All  these  considerations  have  been  urged  not  only  for  popu- 
lar election,  but  for  nominations  by  wards ;  and  such  argu- 
ments would  be  unanswerable  if  members  of  the  boards  were 

i 

4  School  Law  of  Indiana,  F.  L.  Jones,  p.  181. 


23]  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  2$ 

always  statesmanlike  and  unselfish,  and  if  electors  were 
always  unselfish  and  intelligent.  Public  plunder,  however, 
is  too  attractive  and  desire  for  public  office  too  strong  to 
permit  electors  or  representatives  to  reach  and  sustain  them- 
selves at  the  highest  level  of  public  service.  This  is  notably 
true  in  large  cities,  where  neighborhood  acquaintance  is  im- 
possible, and  where  the  feeling  of  personal  responsibility  is 
not  general.  The  tempiation  to  legislate  for  local  advantage 
and  to  reward  political  support  with  patronage  is  too  strong 
for  the  ordinary  political  aspirant  who  seeks  election  to  the 
board  of  education.  By  popular  election  the  choice  of  mem- 
bers for  the  board  must  be  made  in  the  heart  of  a  local  polit- 
ical campaign,  when  many  interests  are  at  stake  besides  the 
welfare  of  the  schools.  Places  on  the  board  are  likely  to  be 
given  to  small  politicians  not  otherwise. provided  for,  or  to 
be  traded  off  lor  help  in  securing  more  prominent  places. 
The  position  thus  becomes  degraded  and  does  not  attract 
men  of  superior  ability. 

A  large  body*of  facts  concerning  school  boards  in  repre- 
sentative cities  may  be  found  in  the  accompanying  tabula- 
tions. These  facts  were  obtained  through  correspondence 
with  school  authorities  in  the  several  cities  in  February, 
1902 : 


24 


MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


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New  York  City, 
N.Y. 

3,437,202 

State  law  (4  mills', 
and    Board    of 

46 

About  J 
appointed 

Appointed  by 
mayor. 

5 

Boroughs. 

Board. 

6 

Estimate       and 

annually. 

Apportionment. 

Chicago,  111. 

1,698,575 

City  council. 

21 

Seven  appoint- 

Appointed by 

3 

City. 

Board. 

5 

ed  annually. 

mayor. 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

1,293,697 

City  council. 

42* 

By  judges  of 

3 

Ward. 

Board. 

i 

Court  of  Com- 

mon Pleas. 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

575,238 

Four  mills  by 

12 

Four  elected 

Popular    elec- 

6 

City. 

Board. 

4 

State  law. 

every  two 

tion. 

years. 

Boston,  Mass. 

560,892 

State  legislature. 

24 

Eight  elected 

Popular    elec- 

3 

City. 

Board. 

2 

annually. 

tion. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

508,957 

City  council. 

9 

Three 

Appointed  by 

6 

City. 

Board. 

No  fixed 

appointed 

mayor,  ap- 

term. 

bi-ennially. 

proved  by  city 
council. 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 

381,768 

City  tax  commis- 
sion. 

7 

Three  and  four 
elected  alter- 

Popular vote. 

2 

City. 

Appointed 
by  director, 

During 
good  be- 

nately. 

confirmed 

havior. 

by  board. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

352,387 

Supt.    of    educa- 
tion. 

Elected  by 
the  people. 

4 

San  Francisco, 
Cal. 

342,782 

Board   of    super- 
visors. 

4 

One  appointee 
each  year. 

Appointed  by 
mayor. 

4 

City. 

Elected  by 
the  people. 

4 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

325>902 

Board. 

3' 

No  provision. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

Ward. 

Board. 

2 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 

321,616 

Board. 

39 

Elected  by 

3 

Sub-district. 

Sub-district 

3 

sub-district 

directors. 

boards. 

New  Orleans, 
La. 

287,104 

City  council  under 
State  laws   and 

20 

Five  chosen 
annually. 

Twelve  by  city 
council,  eight 

4 

Twelve  by  dis- 
tricts ;    eight 

Board. 

4 

constitution    of 

bv    governor 

at  large. 

1898. 

of  State. 

Detroit,  Mich. 

285,704 

Council. 

T7 

Eight  or  nine 

Popular  vote. 

4 

Ward. 

Board. 

3 

elected  each 

two  years. 

Milwaukee,  V/is. 

285,315 

Board    with    ap- 

23 

%  elected  an- 

Appointed   by 

3 

Ward. 

Board. 

3 

proval  of  com- 

nually. 

school  board 

mon  council. 

commission- 

ers.! 

Washington, 
D.C. 

278,718 

Board. 

7 

One  appointed 
annually. 

Commissioners 
of  D.  C. 

7 

Entire    district 
(D.  C.). 

Board. 

No 
limit. 

Newark,  N.  J. 

246,070 

Common  council. 

3° 

Fifteen  elected 

Elected  by 

2 

Wards. 

Board. 

Indef- 

annually. 

wards. 

inite. 

Jersey  City, 

206,433 

City  board  of 
finance. 

13 

Ten  appointed 
one   year,   3 

Appointed    by 
mayor. 

2 

One  at  large, 
others  by 

Board. 

3 

the  next. 

wards. 

Louisville,  Ky. 

204,731 

City  council. 

M 

Seven    elected 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Legislative  dis- 

Board. 

2 

annually. 

tricts. 

Minneapolis, 

202,718 

Board  of  tax  levy. 

7 

Two  elected 

Popular  vote. 

6 

City. 

Board. 

3 

Minn. 

every  two 

years. 

*  Since  February  n,  190?. 


t  School  board  commissioners  of  Milwaukee  are  appointed  by  the  mayor. 


25] 


1 HE  SCHOOL  BOARD 


Is  Supervise 

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Yes. 

In 

Supts. 

Board. 

Board  of  ex- 

After three 

Largely. 

Board. 

Board. 

No. 

smallest 

aminers. 

years. 

schools. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Board. 

After  exami- 

After three 

Com.  on  buildings 

Board. 

No. 

nation. 

years. 

and  grounds. 

Yes. 

No. 

Local 

Board. 

Board. 

Upon  elec- 

Board, through 

Local 

Partly. 

boards. 

tion. 

committee  on 

board. 

property. 

Yes. 

In  small 
schools 

Supt. 

Board. 

By  graduation 
from  normal 

During  good 
service. 

Merit  only. 

Commissioner  of 
school  buildings. 

Com.  on 
school 

No. 

only. 

school. 

buildings. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Supt. 

Board  of 

After  five 

No  formal 

School-house  com- 

Board. 

Yes. 

and 

supervisors. 

years. 

rules. 

mission    of    city 

board. 

government. 

Yes. 

No. 

Supt.  from 

Board. 

Examination 

After  one 

Largely. 

Board,  through 

Board. 

No. 

eligible  list. 

board. 

year. 

supervisor  of 
school  buildings. 

Par- 
tially. 

One  hour 
per  day. 

Supt. 

Supt. 

Board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

During 
successful 

Practically, 
entirely  ; 

School  director. 

School 
director. 

Yes. 

work. 

technically, 

not  at  all. 

Yes. 

Some  do. 

Supt. 

Supt. 

Board  of  ex- 

After six 

Entirely. 

Bureau  of  build- 

Mayor. 

Yes. 

aminers. 

months. 

ings. 

Yes. 

Yes,  part 

By  board 

Board. 

Supts.  and 

After  six 

Not  at  all. 

Board  of  public 

Board. 

Yes. 

time. 

members. 

board. 

months. 

works. 

No. 

In  a  few 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board  of  ex- 

After seven 

Committee  on 

Board. 

Yes. 

schools. 

aminers. 

years. 

buildings. 

Yes. 

No. 

Sub-district 

Sub- 

Sub-district  board. 

Sub- 

Yes. 

boards. 

district 

district 

boards. 

board. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

By  board,  in 
order,  from 

Board. 

Board. 

After  three 
months. 

Entirely. 

Committee  on 
school-houses. 

Board. 

Yes. 

eligible  list. 

Partly. 

Some. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Examining 
Committee. 

Upon  ap- 
pointment, if 

Wholly. 

Committee  on 
real  estate. 

Com.  on 
janitors. 

Yes. 

satisfactory. 

Yes. 

In  small 
schools. 

By  Com- 
mittee on 

Board. 

By  graduation 
from  normal 

During 
efficiency. 

In  practice, 
entirely. 

Joint  committee  of 
board,     common 

Board. 

Yes. 

Appoint- 

school or  col- 

council, &  board 

ments. 

lege. 

of  public  works. 

No. 

Yes. 

Members 

Board. 

Upon  exam- 

Upon ap- 

Not at  all. 

Inspector  of  build- 

Board. 

Yes. 

of  board. 

ination. 

pointment. 

ings,  D.  C. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board  of  ex- 

One year,  if 

Entirely. 

Supt.    of    erection 

Board. 

Yes. 

aminers. 

satisfactory. 

and  repairs. 

Yes. 

Yes,  part 

By  standing 

Board. 

Board  of  ex- 

Upon ap- 

Entirely. 

Board,  through 

Board. 

Yes. 

time. 

on  eligible 

aminers. 

pointment. 

supervising 

list. 

architect. 

Yes. 

Yes,  in 

District 

Board. 

As  normal 

Never. 

Not  at  all. 

Board. 

Principal. 

Yes. 

smaller 

trustees. 

graduates. 

schools. 

Yes. 

In  small 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board,  through 

After  five 

Practically, 

Committee  on 

Board. 

Yes. 

schools. 

superintend- 

years. 

but  without 

buildings. 

ent. 

formal  rules. 

26                                       MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION                                   [2£ 

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Providence,  R.  I. 

175,597 

City  council. 

33 

10  elected 

Popular  vote. 

3 

Wards. 

Board. 

I 

annually. 

Indianapolis, 
Ind. 

169,164 

Board. 

5 

3  and  2  elected 
bi-ennially. 

Popular  vote. 

4 

City. 

Board. 

4 

Kansas  City, 

163,752 

Board,  up  to  4 

6 

2  elected  every 

Popular  vote. 

6 

City. 

Board. 

i 

Mo. 

mill  limit. 

two  years. 

Saint  Paul, 
Minn. 

163,065 

City  council,  on 
request  of  Board. 

7 

3,  2,  and  2,  on 
successive 

Appointed  by 
mayor. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

2 

years. 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

162,608 

State  law  and 
city  council. 

5 

2  and  3  elected 
alternately. 

Popular  vote. 

4 

City. 

Board. 

4 

Denver,  Col.* 

133,859 

Board  under 
charter  limits. 

6 

2  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

District. 

Board. 

i 

Toledo,  Ohio. 

131,822 

Board. 

5 

i  elected  each 

Popular  vote. 

5 

City. 

Board. 

2 

year. 

Allegheny,  Pa. 

129,896 

Board. 

90 

30  elected 

Popular  vote. 

3 

Wards. 

Board. 

3 

annually. 

Columbus,  Ohio. 

125,560 

Board,  approved 

19 

9  and  10  elected 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Wards. 

Board. 

2 

by  tax  commis- 

on alternate 

sion. 

years. 

Worcester, 

118,421 

City  council. 

24 

8  elected 

Popular  vote. 

3 

Wards. 

Board. 

I 

Mass. 

annually. 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

108,374 

Board  of  estimate 
and  apportion- 

7 

3  elected  one 
year,  4  two 

Popular  vote. 

4 

City. 

Board. 

3 

ment. 

years  later. 

New  Haven, 

108,027 

City  board  of 

7 

2  or  i  ap- 

Appointed by 

4 

City. 

Board. 

5 

Conn. 

finance. 

pointed  annu- 

mayor. 

ally. 

Paterson,  N.  J.j 

105,171 

Board  oi  school 
estimate.    2  Bd. 

8 

4  appointed 
every  two 

Appointed  by 
mayor. 

2 

Wards. 

Board. 

Indef- 
inite. 

Ed.,  2  aldermen 

years. 

and  mayor. 

Fall  River, 
Mass. 

104,863 

City  council. 

9 

3  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

i 

Saint  Joseph, 

102,979 

Board. 

6 

2  elected  every 

District  vote. 

2 

City. 

Board. 

2 

Mo. 

two  years. 

Omaha,  Neb. 

102,555 

Board. 

15 

5  elected 

Popular  vote. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

3 

annually. 

Los  Angeles, 

102,479 

City  council. 

9 

No  provision. 

Popular  vote, 

2 

Wards. 

Board. 

4 

Cal. 

by  wards. 

Memphis,  Tenn 

102,320 

State,  county, 

5 

Part  elected 

Popular  vote. 

4 

City. 

Board. 

2 

and  city. 

every  two 

years. 

Scranton,  Pa. 

102,026 

City  board  of 
control. 

21 

10  or  ii  electee 
bi-ennially. 

Popular  vote. 

4 

Wards. 

Board. 

3 

*  Denver  is  divided  into  four  districts,  each  having  a  superintendent  of  its  own.     The  facts  given  above  are  for  District 


27] 


THE  SCHOOL  BOARD 


I 

X5 

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ipt. 

°  %"& 

| 

£16 

a 

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1 

1 

1 

£ 

lit 

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<j  ""*" 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Com.  on 

Board. 

State. 

Upon 

Not  at  all. 

Com.  of 

Bd.  Com. 

No. 

teachers. 

appointment. 

city  council. 

on  school 

houses. 

Yes. 

Occasion- 
ally. 

Supt. 

Supt. 

State. 

During  good 
service. 

Practically 
entirely. 

Board  through 
director. 

Business 
directors. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

In  small 
schools 

By  board, 
usually  on 

Board. 

Board  of 
examiners. 

During  satis- 
factory service. 

Generally. 

Board. 

Board,  us- 
ually on 

Yes. 

only. 

advice  of 

nomina- 

Supt. 

tion  chief 

engineer. 

Yes. 

In  schools 

Supt. 

Board. 

Examining 

After  one 

Very  largely. 

Council  for 

Board. 

Yes. 

of  less 

Com. 

year. 

construction, 

than  8 

board  for  re- 

rooms. 

pairs. 

Yes. 

Some. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board  of 

No  specific 

Board. 

Board. 

Yes. 

examiners. 

regulation. 

Yes. 

Half  time 

Board. 

Board. 

Board. 

After  three 

Largely. 

Board. 

Board. 

Practi- 

in small 

months. 

cally, 

schools. 

yes. 

Yes. 

Not 
regularly 

Supt. 

Supt. 

Board  of 
examiners. 

During  good 
service. 

Supt.  not 
limited. 

Business 
manager. 

Business 
manager. 

Yes. 

in  large 

schools. 

Some. 

Not  much. 

Board. 

Board. 

Supt. 

Never. 

Merit  secures 

Ward 

Ward 

Yes. 

promotion. 

board. 

board. 

Yes. 

In  small 

Supt.  and 

Board. 

During  good 

Generally. 

Com.  on 

Board. 

Yes. 

schools 

Com.  on 

service. 

buildings. 

only. 

teachers. 

Some. 

Two  hours 
daily. 

Com.  on 
teachers. 

Com.  on 
teachers. 

Com.  on 
teachers. 

During 
success. 

Appointed  in 
order  from 
eligible  list. 

Supt.  of  pub. 
buildings. 

Supt.  of 
public 
buildings. 

No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

From 

Board. 

State. 

One  year. 

Not  at  all. 

Supt.  of 

Board. 

Yes. 

eligible  list 

buildings. 

by  any  mem- 

ber of  board. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board.  * 

After  satis- 

Not at  all. 

Com.  on 

Board. 

Yes. 

factory  service. 

school  build- 

ings. 

Yes. 

Not 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board  of 

Alter  one 

Formally, 

Com.  on 

Board. 

Yes. 

required 

examiners. 

year. 

not  at  all. 

buildings  and 

to  do  so. 

repairs. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt.  and 
board. 

Supt.  and 
board. 

After  three 
years. 

Practically 
altogether. 

Com.  of 
city  council. 

Com.  of 
city 

No. 

council. 

I  Yes. 

Yes. 

Com.  on 

Board. 

Supt. 

During  satis- 

Largely. 

Com.  on 

Board. 

Yes. 

teachers. 

factory  service. 

buildings. 

Yes. 

Yes,  in 
small 

Supt.  and 
teachers 

Board. 

Special 
Exam.  Com. 

Five  years. 

Promotion 
and  tenure. 

Board. 

Board. 

Yes. 

schools. 

Com. 

!  Yes. 

Yes,  in 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board. 

When 

As  far  as 

Com.  on 

Board. 

Yes. 

small 

satisfactory. 

practicable. 

buildings. 

schools. 

Yes. 

Only 
occasion- 

Supt. and 
two  members 

Board. 

Examining 
Com. 

Never, 

Very  limited. 

Board, 
through  com- 

Supt. and 
board. 

Yes. 

ally. 

of  board. 

mittee. 

No. 

Yes. 

Com.  on 
teachers. 

Board. 

Supt. 

During  satis- 
factory service. 

Practically 
entirely. 

Board,  through 
Supt.  of  con- 

Board. 

Yes. 

struction. 

28 


MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


[28 


CITY. 

'o 

3 
C 

I 

£    0 
04 

What  Authority  Deter- 
mines Amount  to  be 
Raised  for  School  Pur- 
poses? 

"o 
S2 

10 

How  is  Gradual  Change 
of  Board  Provided 
For? 

How  is  School  Board 
Chosen  ? 

Term  of  Office  in  Years. 

Chosen  from  Entire  City, 
Ward,  or  Sub-district  ? 

How  is  the  Superintend- 
ent of  Schools  Chosen  ? 

Superintendent's  Term  of 
Office  in  Years. 

Springfield, 
Mass. 

62,059 

City  council,  gen- 
eral expenses; 
Sch.     committee 
for  teachers'  sal- 
aries. 

3  elected  each 
year,   mayor 
ex-officio. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

i  irom  each  of 
8  wards,  i  at 
large. 

Board. 

i 

Somerville, 
Mass. 

61,643 

Board. 

14 

Half  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

Ward. 

Board. 

i 

Troy,  N.  Y. 

60,651 

Common  council. 

7 

3  appointed 
each  year. 

Appointed  by 
mayor. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

i 

Hoboken,  N.  J. 

59,364 

Board  of  tax 
commissioners. 

8 

Appointed  by 
mayor. 

2 

City. 

Board. 

3 

Evansville,  Ind. 

59,007 

Board. 

3 

i  appointed 
each  year. 

Mayor. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

1 

Manchester, 

N.  H. 

56,987 

Com.  of  common 
council. 

22 

Not  provided 
lor. 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Ward. 

Board. 

2 

Utica,  N.  Y. 

56,383 

Board. 

6 

2  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

Not 
limited 

Peoria,  111. 

56,IOO 

Board. 

16 

5  elected  each 
year. 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Ward. 

Board. 

5 

Charleston,  S.  C. 

55,807 

Board. 

IO 

4  appointed,  6 
elected. 

Vote  of  school 
districts. 

4 

District. 

Board. 

4 

Savannah,  Ga. 

54,244 

County  com- 
missioners. 

12 

9  self  perpet- 
uating, 3  by 
mayor. 

Every  two 
years. 

No 
limit, 

2 

City. 

Board. 

i 

Salt  Lake  City. 
Utah. 

53,531 

Board. 

IO 

5  elected 
bi  ennially. 

Popular  vote. 

4 

Ward. 

Board. 

2 

San  Antonio, 
Tex. 

53,321 

Board. 

7 

3  and  4  elected 
alternately. 

Popular  vote. 

2 

City. 

Board. 

I 

Duluth,  Minn. 

52,969 

Board. 

9 

3  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

3 

Erie,  Pa. 

52,733 

Board. 

18 

i  from  each 
ward  annually. 

Elected. 

3 

Ward. 

Board. 

3 

Elizabeth,  N.  J. 

52,130 

City  council  and 
Board  of  Ed. 

12 

6  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Ward. 

Board. 

7 

Wilkes-Barre, 
Pa. 

51,721 

Board. 

6 

2  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

3 

Kansas  City, 
Kan. 

5M<8 

Board,  under  limits 
of  state  law. 

6 

2  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

Ward. 

Board. 

i 

Harrisburg,  Pa. 

So,67 

Board  of  school 
directors. 

27 

9  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

Ward. 

Board. 

3 

Portland,  Me. 

50,145 

City  government. 

13 

6  and  7  electee 
bi-ennially. 

Popular  vote. 

2 

1 

i  from  each 
ward,  3  at 
large. 

Board. 

i 

29] 


THE  SCHOOL  BOARD 


29 


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ra  s  6*0 

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<  ""' 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board. 

When  proved 

City  govern- 

Board. 

Yes. 

competent. 

ment. 

Yes. 

%  time. 

Supt. 

By  board 

Never. 

Not  at  all. 

Commissioner 

Coin,  of 

Yes. 

annually. 

of  Pub.  build- 

Pub. build- 

ings. 

ings. 

Yes. 

Not    regu- 
larly. 

Board. 

Board. 

Under  State 
law. 

Never. 

Not  at  all. 

City  govern- 
ment, through 

Dept.  of 
public 

Partly,  but 
more   to 

city  engineer. 

works. 

Dept.  of 

Public 

Works. 

Yes. 

Part  time. 

Teachers' 

Board. 

Graduation 

Six  months. 

Not  at  all. 

Board. 

Yes. 

Com. 

from  Tr. 

School. 

Yes. 

In  small 

Board. 

Board. 

State. 

After  20  years. 

Board,  through 

Board. 

Yes. 

i 

schools. 

custodian  of 

buildings 

and  grounds. 

;  Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Supt.  and 
examining 

After  i  year, 
if  successful. 

No  special 
rule. 

Board,  through 
engineer. 

Special 
committee. 

Yes. 

committee. 

Some. 

Some. 

Com.  on 

Board. 

State. 

During  satis- 

Com. on 

Board. 

Yes. 

teachers. 

factory  service. 

buildings. 

Yes. 

Part  time 
only. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board. 

After  3  years. 

Wholly,  in 
practice. 

Board,  through 
Supt.  of  build- 

Board. 

Yes. 

ings. 

Yes. 

No. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board  of 

During  good 

Not  at  all. 

Com.  on  con- 

Board. 

Yes. 

examiners. 

service. 

struction  and 

repairs. 

;   Yes. 

Yes. 

Eligible  list. 

Board. 

Never. 

Practically 

Com.  on 

Supt. 

Yes. 

in  all  cases. 

school  houses. 

Yes. 

In  small 

Supt. 

Board. 

Board  of 

During 

To  limited 

Supt.  of 

Board. 

To  limited 

schools. 

through 

examiners. 

success. 

extent. 

buildings  and 

extent. 

Com.  on 

Board. 

teachers. 

!  Yes. 

Yes. 

Com.  oi 

Board. 

State  Board, 

Never. 

Successful 

Board. 

Board. 

Yes. 

Board. 

City  Bd.  & 

service 

Supt. 

recognized. 

Yes. 

Part  time. 

Com.  on 
teachers. 

Board. 

Board  of 
examiners. 

After  5  years. 

Largely. 

Building  Com. 
of  Board. 

Board. 

No. 

Yes. 

Yes,  but 

not  regu- 

Supt. 

Board. 

Supt. 

i  year,  if 
satisfactory. 

In  promo- 
tions. 

Com.  on 
buildings. 

Board,  by 
wards. 

Yes. 

larly. 

'   Yes. 

No. 

Com.  on 
teachers. 

Board. 

City  and 
State. 

Upon  election 

Merit  only. 

Com.  on 
buildings. 

Board. 

Yes. 

;  NO. 

Yes. 

Teachers' 
Com. 

Board. 

Supt.  or 
State. 

During  suc- 
cessful service 

Not  at  all. 

Board. 

Board. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes,  in 

Supt. 

Board. 

When  satis- 

Almost 

Board. 

Board. 

Yes. 

small 

factory. 

entirely. 

schools. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Com.  on 
teachers. 

Board. 

Supt.  or 
State. 

During  good 
service. 

Almost 
entirely. 

Board. 

Board. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supervisors. 

Board. 

Board. 

When  satis- 

Not at  all. 

Com.  of  city 

Com.  of 

No. 

factory. 

government. 

city  gov- 

ernment. 

MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRA  TION 


[30 


X 

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Si! 

1 
1 

i 

8 

ft 

•2  ji 

g 

CITY. 

| 

III 

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e 

P 

1 

8 

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So 

II 

"*j  rt 

.3   0 

3   0 

fill 

£ 

ll 

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j| 

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te   e 

g.2 

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£ 

fc 

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^ 

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w 

U3 

Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

47,931 

Board  of  educa- 
tion and  com- 

15 

3  appointed 
annually. 

Appointed  by 
mayor. 

5 

City. 

Board. 

At  pleas- 
ure of 

mon  council. 

board. 

Norfolk,  Va. 

46,624 

City  council. 

14 

7  elected  every 
two  years. 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Ward. 

State  board 
of  education. 

4 

Waterbury, 

45,859 

Board  of  educa- 

7 

No  provision. 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Entire  city. 

Board. 

2 

Conn. 

tion  and  alder- 

- 

men. 

Holyoke,  Mass. 

45,712 

Aldermen. 

9 

3  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

7  by  wards,  2 
at  large. 

Board. 

I 

Fort  Wayne,Ind. 

45,«5 

State  and  board. 

3 

i  elected 
annually. 

City  council. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

Not  a 
fixed 
number,  i 

Youngstown,  O. 

44,885 

Board. 

20 

10  elected 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Ward. 

Board. 

2 

annually. 

Houston,  Tex. 

44,633 

City  council. 

7 

3  and  4  elected 

Popular  vote. 

2 

City. 

Board. 

I 

alternate 

years. 

Covington,  Ky. 

42,938 

City  council,  on 
request  of  board. 

12 

6  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

2 

City. 

Board. 

2 

1 

Akron,  O. 

42,728 

Board. 

16 

8  elected 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Wards. 

Board. 

2 

annually. 

Dallas,  Tex. 

42,638 

City  council,  to 

7 

No  provision. 

Popular  vote. 

2 

City. 

Board. 

2* 

•2l/2  mill  limit. 

Saginaw,  Mich. 

42,345 

Board  of  esti- 

18 

9  elected 

Popular  vote. 

2 

Ward. 

Board. 

I 

mate. 

each  year. 

Lancaster,  Pa. 

4i,459 

Board. 

36 

12  elected 

Nominated  by 

3 

Ward. 

Board. 

3 

annually. 

wards;  popu- 

lar election. 

Lincoln,  Neb. 

40,169 

Board. 

9 

3  elected 

Popular  vote. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

i 

annually. 

Brockton,  Mass. 

40,063 

Board  of 
aldermen. 

10 

3  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

' 

Binghamton, 

39,647 

Common  council. 

7 

i  appointed 

Appointed  by 

7 

City. 

Board. 

At  pleas- 

N. Y. 

each  year. 

mayor. 

ure  of 

board. 

Augusta,  Ga. 

39,44i 

County  board  of 
education. 

City 

12  elected 
annually. 

Popular  vote. 

3 

Ward,  militia 
district,  and 

Board. 

i 

C0.22. 

village. 

Pawtucket,  R.  I. 

39,23i 

City  council. 

9 

3  elected 

Popular  vote. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

i 

annually 

Altoona,  Pa. 

38,973 

Board. 

6 

2  elected 

Popular  vote. 

3 

City. 

Board. 

3 

annually. 

Wheeling,W.Va. 

38,878 

Finance  com- 
mittee of  board. 

21 

7  elected 
bi-ennially. 

Popular  vote. 

6 

Ward. 

Board. 

2 

*  Superintendent  is  elected  in  the  year  during  which  election  of  board  does  not  occur. 


THE  SCHOOL  BOARD 


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Yes. 

Not  in 
large 

Supt. 

Com.  of 
board. 

State. 

After  proved 
success. 

Technically, 
not  at  all. 

Committee  on 
buildings. 

Board. 

Yes. 

schools. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Committee 
on  teachers. 

Board. 

Supt. 

During  good 
behavior. 

Very  largely. 

Building  Com. 
&  Supt. 

Board. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

%  time. 

Supt. 

Supt. 

Supt. 

2  years. 

Only  normal  & 
college  grad- 

Board. 

Board. 

Yes. 

uates    eligible. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Supt. 

3  years. 

Not  at  all. 

Board  of  pub- 

Board. 

Yes. 

lic  works. 

No. 

No. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Supt. 

Never. 

Not  at  all. 

Board,  through 

Board. 

No. 

architect. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Committee 
on  teachers. 

Board. 

Examining 
committee. 

Upon  appoint- 
ment, if  satis- 

Ability always 
recognized. 

Board,  through 
committee. 

Board. 

Yes. 

factory. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Examining 

After  one 

Almost 

Committee    on 

Board. 

Yes. 

board. 

year. 

entirely. 

buildings. 

Yes. 

%  time. 

Board  and 

Board. 

Board  of 

When 

Not  at  all. 

Building  com- 

Board. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

examiners. 

successful. 

mittee. 

Yes. 

Part 

Supt.  and 

Board. 

Examining 

When  proved 

No  formal 

Board,  through 

Board. 

In  a 

time. 

committee 

board. 

successful. 

rules. 

committees. 

measure. 

on  teachers. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Upon  exami- 

After   success- 

So far  as 

Com.  on  Sch. 

Board. 

Yes. 

nation. 

ful  service. 

practicable. 

Property. 

Yes. 

Part 
time. 

Committee 
on   teachers. 

Board. 

Supt.  and 
Exam.  Com. 

After  2  or  3 
years. 

In  practice, 
entirely. 

Committee   on 
buildings. 

Board. 

Yes. 

No. 

Yes. 

Board. 

Board. 

Supt. 

Practically 

Board. 

Board. 

No. 

upon    appoint- 

ment. 

Yes. 

%  time. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Supt.,  Prin. 
H.  Sch.  & 
Chrm.  T. 

During  satis- 
factory service. 

Not  at  all. 

Committee  on 
buildings. 

Committee   on 
care  of 
buildings. 

To  limited 
extent. 

Com. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Committee 

Board. 

Board. 

Never. 

Not  at  all. 

Supt.  of  public 

Board. 

Yes. 

on  teachers 

buildings. 

and  Supt. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Supt. 

Board. 

State. 

During  satis- 
factory service. 

Supervisor  of 
buildings. 

Board,  under 
civil  service. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

%  time. 

Supt. 

Board. 

Supt. 

During  good 
behaviour. 

Spirit  of  rules 
observed. 

Building  com- 
mittee of 

Principals. 

Yes. 

board. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Committee 

Board. 

State. 

Upon  election. 

Merit  and 

Property  Com. 

Board. 

No. 

of  Board. 

fitness. 

of  Board. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Board. 

Board. 

Supt. 

When 

Generally. 

Board. 

Board. 

Yes. 

satisfactory. 

Yes. 

Part 
time. 

Ward  com- 
missioners. 

Board. 

By  exami- 
nation. 

When 
satisfactory. 

Formally,  not 
at  all. 

Committee    on 
buildings. 

Board,  on  nom- 
ination of  ward 

Yes. 

commissioners. 

32  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [j2 

A  special  election  for  choosing  a  board  of  education  is 
scarcely  practicable,  since  comparatively  few  would  find  time 
to  attend  to  voting  at  such  an  election.  It  is  fair  to  say, 
though,  that  in  small  cities  excellent  school  administration 
has  been  accomplished  by  elective  boards.  Local  pride, 
general  personal  acquaintance,  and  a  preponderance  of  self- 
respecting  middle-class  inhabitants,  have  prevented  corrup- 
tion in  school  affairs.  No  doubt  the  tendency  of  rapidly 
growing  cities  to  preserve  the  institutions  which  served 
them  while  they  were  villages  or  small  cities  has  proved 
most  harmful  in  school  administration. 

The  second  method  of  selecting  the  board  of  education  is 
by  appointment,  and  the  appointing  power  is  most  com- 
monly vested  in  the  mayor  of  the  city.  Although  this  plan 
seems  to  remove  direct  control  from  the  people  at  large,  it 
has  proved  so  satisfactory  that  no  city,  so  far  as  the  writer 
can  discover,  having  adopted  it,  has  returned  to  popular 
election.  The  loss  of  political  power  on  the  part  of  the 
people  is  more  apparent  than  real,  for  they  create  the 
appointing  power  and  may  be  more  safely  trusted  to  see 
that  their  appointee  does  his  duty  faithfully,  than  to  do  such 
duty  for  themselves.  The  mayor,  or  other  appointing 
officer,  is  a  concrete  individual  and  may  be  held  strictly  to 
account,  but  "the  people"  is  an  irresponsible,  general  body 
which  can  inspect,  complain,  and  instruct  with  great  facility; 
but  can  be  held  accountable  for  nothing. 

If  appointment  is  made  by  the  mayor,  he  may  attend  to 
this  duty  at  a  time  apart  from  all  political  excitement  and 
somewhat  after  his  own  election.  In  case  of  a  mayor  about 
to  retire  from  office,  school  appointments  may  be  made 
under  most  favorable  conditions,  since  the  retiring  mayor 
has  no  political  bargains  to  make,  and  the  conservative  in- 
fluence of  the  old  administration  may  be  carried  forward  into 
the  new. 


33 J  *      THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  33 

Appointment  of  the  board  by  the  judges  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  in  Philadelphia,  and  by  a  special  commission 
created  for  that  purpose  in  Milwaukee,  are  methods  of 
selection  so  unusual  as  to  require  no  more  than  a  passing 
comment.  In  the  one  case  the  appointing  power  is  com- 
paratively independent  of  the  people,  and  in  the  other 
absolutely  irresponsible  after  they  have  performed  the 
function  for  which  they  were  created.  This  lack  of  respon- 
sibility is  enough  to  condemn  either  plan. 

By  reference  to  the  tabulation,  pp.  — ,  it  will  be  seen  that 
cities  are  pretty  evenly  divided  in  the  matter  of  choosing 
members  of  their  boards  from  the  city  at  large  or  from  sub- 
divisions of  the  city.  In  the  case  of  very  large  cities  made 
up  of  recently  combined  smaller  cities,  it  is  easy  to  see  some 
reason  for  the  evident  desire  to  maintain  local  representa- 
tion ;  and  there  may  be  some  necessity  for  such  representa- 
tion while  the  new  city  is  adjusting  its  parts  to  new  relations ; 
but  in  old  and  compact  cities  local  representation  as  well  as 
representation  of  races,  religions,  or  social  classes  is  likely  to 
suggest  unnecessary  conflicts  of  interest  in  the  board  and  to 
result  in  inefficient  disagreement  or  in  bargains  for  the 
accomplishment  of  factional  ends.  It  is  significant  that  in 
the  author's  correspondence  with  superintendents5  several 
recommend  the  selection  of  boards  from  the  city  at  large, 
rather  than  from  wards,  but  not  one  advises  a  change  of 
representation  from  the  city  at  large  to  wards.  The  argu- 
ment most  frequently  used  in  favor  of  ward  representation 
in  the  board  is  the  advantage  of  the  intimate  knowledge  of 
local  conditions  and  needs  on  the  part  of  the  ward  repre- 
sentative; but  the  use  which  a  local  politician  commonly 
makes  of  his  intimate  knowledge  of  local  affairs  is  too  well 
known  to  require  any  apology  for  his  elimination  from 
.school  administration. 

5  See  Appendix. 


* 
34  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

Of  course  any  intelligent  appointing  power  or  electing 
body  will  see  that  due  regard  is  paid  to  a  wise  geographical 
distribution  of  representatives ;  but  that  entails  no  local  ob- 
ligations upon  the  persons  chosen,  as  would  be  the  case  if 
they  were  elected,  or  at  least  nominated  by  a  local  con- 
stituency who  might  demand  and  exact  special  consideration 
of  local  interests.  No  discussion  of  the  composition  of  a 
board  of  education  would  be  complete  which  omitted  to  say 
that  the  city  superintendent  of  schools,  who  is  the  profes- 
sional adviser  of  the  board,  should  have  a  seat  and  a  voice 
in  the  deliberations  of  that  body,  not  merely  by  courtesy, 
but  by  right. 

From  the  tabulation  at  the  first  of  this  chapter,  it  appears 
that  terms  of  office  for  members  of  boards  are  generally  two 
or  three  years.  The  advantages  of  short  and  long  terms  are 
readily  apparent.  A  short  term  makes  a  member  closely 
responsible  for  performing  his  duty  according  to  the  desire 
of  the  appointing  power,  and  makes  the  member  in  fact  a 
representative  of  the  officer,  board,  or  constituency  which 
selects  him.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  a  short  term  tends  to 
relieve  the  member  of  a  sense  of  personal  responsibility  for 
the  welfare  of  the  schools  of  his  city,  and  to  take  away  from 
him  the  exercise  of  independent  judgment  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  affairs  which  his  office  requires  him  to  study.  A 
long  term  of  office,  on  the  other  hand,  removes  a  large 
measure  of  control  from  the  appointing  power  and  leaves  it 
with  the  person  appointed.  While  it  is  possible  for  the  ap- 
pointed member  to  make  a  bad  use  of  the  independence 
bestowed  by  his  long  term  of  office,  the  care  with  which  he 
would  be  selected,  in  view  of  the  impossibility  of  getting  rid  of 
him,  would  in  some  degree  offset  any  practical  disadvantage 
arising  from  his  independence.  Moreover,  the  personal  re- 
sponsibility and  the  respectability  attached  to  a  long  tenure 
of  office  would  make  available  a  set  of  men  greatly  superior 


35] 


THE  SCHOOL  BOARD 


to  those  who  would  consent  to  serve  for  a  short  time,  acting 
as  the  mere  mouthpiece  of  others.  The  increased  experi- 
ence of  members  serving  for  long  periods  would  be  a  dis- 
tinct advantage  to  the  school  system,  and  it  is  quite  probable 
the  good  men  would  be  more  easily  induced  to  serve  for  a 
second  or  third  time,  if  long  terms  of  office  enabled  them  to 
carry  out  large  plans  for  educational  improvement  without 
danger  of  interference  from  passing  changes  of  public  opinion. 
If  long  terms  of  office  be  continued  with  provision  for 
gradual  change  in  the  composition  of  the  board,  the  influ- 
ence of  party  politics  upon  school  affairs  will  be  reduced  to 
a  minimum.  For  example,  by  provisions  of  the  charter  of 
New  York  City,6  taking  effect  January  I,  1902,  each  mem- 
ber of  the  board  is  appointed  for  a  term  of  five  years  ;  and. 
approximately  one-fifth  of  the  board  retires  annually  on  the 
thirty-first  day  of  December,  their  successors  having  been 
appointed  by  the  Mayor  in  the  month  of  November  preced- 
ing. Thus  a  mayor,  who  finds  his  party  defeated  in  a 
November  municipal  election,  has  the  opportunity  to  have 
his  party  representation  in  the  board  of  education  strongly 
fortified  by  his  appointments  made  just  before  retiring.  If 
he  has  served  two  full  terms  of  two  years  each,  he  can  leave 
a  strong  majority  of  his  party  in  control  of  the  board,  a 
majority  which  would  persist  quite  through  his  successor's 
first  term  of  two  years.  During  this  time,  the  board,  being 
in  political  opposition  to  the  rest  of  the  city  government, 
would  be  compelled  to  pursue  a  most  conservative  and  de- 
fensible policy  of  administration,  both  for  the  sake  of  escap- 
ing criticism  from  other  departments,  and  in  the  hope  of 
winning  support  for  its  own  party  in  the  next  municipal 
election.  The  spoilsman  from  within  the  board  would  thus 
be  thwarted  by  the  watchfulness  of  other  departments,  and 
the  spoilsman  from  outside  the  board  would  be  thwarted  by 

•See  chapter  466,  Laws  of  1901,  State  of  New  York. 


--6  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [36 

the  board  itself.  Thus  the  tendency  of  political  changes  in 
the  board  to  lag  behind  political  changes  in  the  general 
municipal  government  would  be  a  most  effective  safeguard 
of  educational  interests.  Of  course  it  may  be  expected,  and 
is  to  be  hoped  that  mayors  of  New  York  City  may  follow 
the  statesmanlike  policy  adopted  by  Mayor  Low  and  appoint 
strong  and  serviceable  men  to  the  board  without  regard  to 
their  party  affiiliations.  In  this  manner  partisanship  would 
be  most  effectively  eliminated  from  the  board,  though  there 
would  still  remain  some  tendency  to  preserve  the  checks  and 
balances  of  the  board  over  against  the  general  municipal 
government.  Changes  of  political  representation  in  the 
board  would  still  lag  behind  similar  changes  in  other  depart- 
ments, though  not  so  far  behind.  If  party  feeling  ran  so 
high  as  to  induce  the  mayor  to  choose  men  of  his  own 
party  for  the  board,  the  changes  in  the  political  make-up  of 
the  board  would  be  made  at  wider  intervals  of  time  and  the 
mutual  restraint  of  board  and  city  government  would  reach 
its  maximum  when  most  needed  ;  but  if  party  feeling  became 
more  and  more  subordinated  to  a  desire  for  municipal  wel- 
fare, changes  in  the  political  character  of  the  board  might 
follow  more  easily  and  rapidly  as  the  need  for  restraints  and 
safeguards  became  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Thus  the  bal- 
ance between  board  and  city  government  would  be  adjusted 
automatically.  It  will  be  observed  that  such  desirable  ad- 
justment results  from  long  terms  of  office  for  members  of 
the  board  and  a  slow  rate  of  change  in  the  composition  of 
the  board. 

The  size  of  boards  varies  from  90  in  Allegheny,  Pa.,  46 
in  New  York  City,  and  42  in  Philadelphia,  to  4  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  3  in  Evansville,  Ind.,  and  3  in  Fort  Wayne, 
Ind.  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  has  no  board  of  education,  the  ordinary 
functions  of  a  board  being  divided  among  the  Superintend- 
ent of  Education,  the  mayor,  and  branches  of  the  city  gov- 


37] 


THE  SCHOOL  BOARD 


eminent.  The  number  of  members  in  the  various  boards 
seems  to  be  determined  partly  by  the  size  of  the  city,  by 
the  compactness  of  its  territory,  and  by  the  history  of  its 
development  either  from  villages  or  small  cities  consolidated, 
or  from  one  large  town  or  county  site.  Probably  the  last  of 
these  factors  has  had  the  greatest  influence.  In  1876,  after 
Boston  had  absorbed  several  of  its  suburbs,  the  school  board 
for  that  city  numbered  116  members.7  New  York  City 
under  its  new  charter,  consolidating  school  administration, 
has  a  board  of  46  members,  an  attempt  having  been  made 
to  preserve  to  each  borough  a  fair  representation.  Much  of 
the  business  of  this  board,  however,  is  entrusted  to  an  execu- 
tive committee  of  1  5,  8  the  full  board  retaining  the  right  to 
confirm,  revise,  or  annul  the  proceedings  of  this  committee. 
It  has  been  said  :  9  "  There  is  no  city  in  the  United  States 
where  the  work  of  the  board  is  not  done  by  less  than  ten 
men."  While  this  saying  may  be  true,  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily follow  that  a  larger  number  may  not  be  of  use  in  giv- 
ing to  the  board  information  concerning  local  conditions 
and  in  sharing  the  responsibility  for  final  decision  with  the 
more  active  members  of  the  board.  Large  boards  are 
almost  indispensable  where  cities  are  in  the  act  of  forming 
by  consolidation,  but  they  are  always  subject  to  the  disad- 
vantage of  becoming  huge  debating  societies,  and  of  scatter- 
ing responsibility  among  a  confusion  of  numerous  committees 
whose  powers  are  not  sharply  defined. 

Small  boards  have  the  advantage  of  not  requiring  or  en- 
couraging much  debate.  The  board  can  act  as  one  responsi- 
ble committee,  and  must  delegate  much  of  its  authority  to 
expert  employees  whose  recommendations  may  be  quickly 
adopted  or  rejected  by  the  board.  A  small  board  has  the 

"  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Circulars  of  Information^  1885,  P*  *4« 

8  Laws  0/7907,  N.  K,  Chapter  466,  Section  1063. 

9  J.  L.  Pickard,  Proc.  of  JV.  E.  A.,  1883,  p.  72. 


38  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [38 

disadvantage  of  not  representing  a  very  large  range  of  terri- 
tory or  of  social  conditions,  and  in  this  respect  there  is 
danger  that  a  board  may  be  too  small.  The  weight  of  ex- 
pert opinion  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  boards  consisting  of 
five  to  eleven  members.10 

While  the  power  of  the  board,  representing  the  authority 
of  the  state,  is  absolute  and  final  within  the  limits  of  statu- 
tory provisions,  much  of  its  power  must  be  delegated  to 
responsible  agents.  Members  of  the  board  generally  serve 
without  pay,  and  their  service  in  this  capacity  is  only  an 
incident  in  their  round  of  duties.  Hence  at  best  their  judg- 
ment represents  the  common  sense  of  the  community  in 
accepting,  modifying,  or  rejecting  the  recommendations  of 
paid  experts.  These  considerations,  far  from  belittling  the 
services  of  the  board,  indicate  its  indispensable  function. 

The  duties  of  the  board  easily  divide  themselves  into  legis- 
lative, executive  and  judicial  duties.  Nominally  the  board 
will  retain  all  of  its  legislative  functions,  though  in  reality  a 
wise  board  will  seek  counsel  from  expert  advisers  even  in 
legislative  matters.  Nevertheless  the  responsibility  for  final 
action  must  rest  with  the  board  alone.  Executive  duties 
seem  to  be  retained  or  delegated  by  the  board,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  city.  In  smaller  cities  the  board,  through 
various  standing  committees  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
superintendent  of  schools,  retains  in  large  measure  its  execu- 
tive functions ;  but  in  large  cities,  where  the  volume  of  finan- 
cial business  in  the  hands  of  executives  amounts  to  millions, 
the  board  exercises  its  power  through  specially  qualified 
agents.  A  board  may  be  competent  to  select  an  inexpensive 
open  lot  for  an  eight-room  building  and  to  prepare  simple 
plans  for  its  construction,  but  few  boards  would  feel  com- 
petent to  undertake  the  detailed  plans  for  an  eighty-room 

10  See  Report  of  Com.  of  Fifteen,  N.  Y.,  1895,  PP-  2O°  to  226« 


39]  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  ^g 

building  in  a  densely  crowded  city  block,  giving  due  atten- 
tion to  warming,  ventilating,  lighting,  and  sanitation. 

Furnishing  supplies  and  books  and  fuel  for  the  schools  of 
a  small  city  may  easily  be  attended  to  by  a  committee  of  the 
board  acting  mainly  through  the  superintendent;  but  in  a 
large  city  the  selecting,  buying,  and  distribution  of  such 
supplies  is  more  than  equivalent  to  the  management  of  a 
large  mercantile  house,  and  demands  the  entire  time  and 
ability  of  an  experienced  business  man  directing  a  large 
corps  of  assistants.  So  in  a  small  town  the  committee  on 
teachers  with  the  superintendent  may  easily  test  the  fitness 
of  candidates  for  positions  as  teachers ;  but  in  New  York 
City  a  board  of  examiners  consisting  of  four  members  and 
the  City  Superintendent  devote  their  entire  time  to  the 
examination  of  candidates. 

Disputes  arising  from  discipline  or  promotion  may  engage 
the  attention  of  the  entire  board  in  a  small  city,  but  in  a 
large  city  the  board  wisely  divests  itself  of  all  judicial  func- 
tions except  in  case  of  appeal.  Among  the  powers  some- 
times entrusted  to  boards  of  education  is  the  power  to  lay 
and  collect  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  schools,  or  at  least 
to  determine  the  amount  of  the  appropriation  which  shall  be 
devoted  to  schools.  The  power  to  lay  and  collect  school  taxes 
is  fraught  with  danger  to  the  schools  as  well  as  to  the  board. 
Conferring  such  power  upon  local  authorities  always  invites 
the  attack  of  invested  capital  upon  the  assessing  body,  and 
the  inevitable  tendency  is  toward  parsimony  rather  than 
toward  true  economy.  Determining  the  amount  of  an  ap- 
propriation from  a  public  fund  already  raised  is  not  attended 
with  any  such  danger,  and  this  appears  to  be  a  method  of 
raising  school  money  which  is  gaining  in  favor.  New  York 
City,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  and  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  are  allowed  by 
state  law  four  mills  on  each  dollar  of  taxable  property  for 
.school  purposes.  Kansas  City,  Kan.,  and  Fort  Wayne,  Ind., 


40  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [40 

report  allowances  made  by  state  law.  Of  course  the  board 
may  secure  supplementary  appropriations  for  extraordinary 
purposes,  such  as  acquisition  of  sites  and  construction  of 
buildings.  In  New  York,11  for  example,  the  money  raised 
by  the  four-mill  tax  is  known  as  the  general  school  fund  and 
is  applied  wholly  to  the  payment  of  the  salaries  of  the 
supervising,  examining,  and  teaching  staff.  All  other  ex- 
penses are  paid  out  of  the  special  fund  designated  in  the 
annual  budget  by  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment 
upon  recommendation  of  the  board  of  education.  Thus  the 
eleven  thousand  persons  who  directly  administer  school 
affairs  are  made  independent  of  appropriations  by  the  city 
government,  and  the  board  of  education  is  relieved  of  the 
danger  of  pressure  or  influence  from  a  body  of  political 
office-holders  who  might,  under  some  circumstances,  attempt 
to  trade  financial  support  for  political  or  personal  favors. 
Said  John  D.  Philbrick:  I2  "The  aim  of  the  most  intelligent 
friends  of  our  schools  has  been  to  separate  their  administra- 
tion as  far  as  practicable  from  the  influence  of  party  politics. 
Everywhere  there  are  unscrupulous  politicians  who  do  not 
hesitate  to  improve  every  opportunity  to  sacrifice  the  inter- 
ests of  the  schools  to  the  purposes  of  the  political  machine. 
Here  is  found  the  source  of  the  most  general,  as  well  as  the 
most  serious,  evil  of  our  city  systems."  Now  the-  two  most 
powerful  instruments  for  commanding  influence  are  the  con- 
trol of  financial  support  and  of  the  distribution  of  patronage.. 
If  these  two  instruments  are  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
politicians,  the  greatest  menace  to  our  city  schools  is 
removed.  From  the  tabulated  information  in  the  early 
pages  of  this  chapter,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  present  tend- 
ency is  toward  conferring  large  powers  upon  the  boards  oi 
education  and  concentrating  and  defining  their  responsi- 

11 N.  Y,  Laws  of  i go i,  Chapter  466,  Sec.  1060. 

11  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Circ.  of  Information,  1885,  p.  15. 


41] 


THE  SCHOOL  BOARD 


bility.  Frequent  suggestions  toward  these  ends  have  been 
made  in  the  correspondence  which  superintendents  and 
other  school  officers  have  contributed  to  this  study.13 

Among  the  first  duties  of  a  board  of  education  is  the 
appointment  of  standing  committees,  unless  the  board  is  so 
small  as  to  transact  all  its  business  as  a  committee  of  the 
whole.  A  large  board  can  hardly  transact  all  its  business 
except  through  committees,  since  the  general  debate  in  a 
large  body  would  occupy  so  much  time.  A  small  com- 
mittee can  investigate  and  report  upon  a  proposed  action 
with  great  throughness,  making  also  a  recommendation  as 
to  final  action.  In  most  cases  the  board  can  pass  upon  such 
recommendations  with  great  rapidity,  thereby  assuming  full 
responsibility  for  the  final  action.  New  York  City  is  mak- 
ing the  latest  experiment  in  the  attempt  to  combine  the 
representative  character  of  a  large  board  with  the  business 
facility  of  a  small  one.  The  board  of  education  consisting 
of  46  members  appoints  annually  from  its  own  number  a 
standing  committee  of  fifteen,14  who  shall,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  board,  constitute  an  executive  committee  for 
the  care,  government,  and  management  of  the  public  school 
system  of  the  city,  subject  to  the  by-laws  of  the  board  of 
education.  At  any  regular  meeting  the  board  may  remove 
any  or  all  members  of  this  committee  and  appoint  others  in 
their  stead.  The  by-laws  of  the  board  IS  adopted  since  its 
organization,  February  3,  1902,  empower  the  executive  com- 
mittee to  take  final  action  on  reports  and  resolutions  relat- 
ing to  the  following  subjects  :  proceedings  for  the  acquisition 
of  sites  previously  selected  by  the  board ;  awarding  of  con- 
tracts approved  by  the  board ;  accepting  plans  for  new 
buildings  ;  executing  leases  for  school  accommodations  ;  dis- 

18  See  extracts  from  letters,  Appendix. 

14  N.  Y.  Laws  of  1901,  Chapter  466,  Section  1063. 

u  By- Laws,  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education  N.  Y.  City,  1902. 


42  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRA  TION  [42 

posal  of  personal  property  no  longer  needed ;  appointment, 
promotion  and  transfer  of  clerks,  attendance  officers,  and 
janitors  ;  suspension  of  any  officer  or  employee  pending  trial ; 
the  determination  of  a  district  school  board  upon  charges 
against  a  teacher,  except  where  dismissal  is  recommended ; 
submitting  plan  for  apportionment  of  general  fund.  The 
entire  board  may  review  and  act  upon  any  proceedings  of 
the  executive  committee.  Thus  the  board  secures  the  rapid 
transaction  of  routine  business  while  retaining  full  power 
over  all  matters  within  its  jurisdiction.  The  value  and  suc- 
cess of  this  experiment  in  administration  remains  to  be 
demonstrated.  The  larger  the  board,  the  greater  the  neces- 
sity for  many  committees,  and  it  has  been  suggested  l6  that 
the  tendency  to  multiply  committees  has  run  to  pernicious 
excess  in  the  attempt  to  furnish  each  member  with  a  petty 
chairmanship.  In  1885  the  Cincinnati  board  transacted  its 
business  through  seventy-four  standing  committees,  includ- 
ing committees  on  fuel,  gymnastics,  drawing,  reports  and 
excuses,  stoves  and  furnaces,  and  penmanship.17  In  the  same 
year  the  standing  committees  of  the  Chicago  board  numbered 
seventy-nine;  but  in  1897  the  number  had  been  reduced  to 
fifteen.18  This  was  the  year  in  which  the  city  council 
authorized  Mayor  Harrison  to  appoint  a  commission  con- 
sisting of  three  members  of  the  city  council,  two  members 
of  the  board  of  education,  and  six  "  outside  citizens,"  to  re- 
vise and  improve  the  plan  of  school  administration  for  that 
city.1* 

16  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  in  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1888,  p.  317. 

1T  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Circ.  of  Information,  1885,  p.  17. 

18  The  Public  Schools  of  Chicago,  Hannah  B.  Clark,  p.  85.     Chicago  University 
Press  1897. 

19  Rep.  of  the  Educational  Commission  of  the  City  of  Chicago,  University  Press 
1900. 


43]  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  43 

Below  are  given  the  standing  committees  of  boards  in 
various  cities  as  reported  in  February,  1902: 

New  York  City,  N.  Y. — Executive  committee  (see  p.  — )  ; 
also  committees  on  finance;  buildings;  supplies;  by-laws 
and  legislation ;  sites ;  elementary  schools ;  high  schools 
and  training  schools ;  special  'schools ;  studies  and  text- 
books ;  lectures  and  libraries ;  care  of  buildings ;  Normal 
College ;  and  Nautical  School. 

Cincinnati,  0. — Auditing;  boundaries,  transfers,  and 
hygiene  ;  buildings  and  repairs ;  course  of  study,  text-books, 
and  apparatus  ;  discipline  ;  funds  and  claims ;  furniture  and 
supplies ;  German  department ;  heating  fixtures  and  fuel ; 
law ;  lots ;  night  schools ;  normal  school  and  teachers' 
institute;  printing;  rules  and  regulations;  teachers  and 
salaries ;  special  teachers. 

Providence,  R.  I. — Accounts  ;  annual  report ;  apportion- 
ment; by-laws;  domestic  science;  drawing  and  penman- 
ship; education  of  blind,  deaf,  and  feeble-minded  children; 
evening  schools;  executive  committee  (in  charge  of  sup- 
plies, truants  and  truant  officers,  discipline,  and  special 
schools);  grammar  and  primary  schools;  high  schools; 
hygiene  ;  music  ;  private  schools  ;  relations  to  city  council ; 
school-houses  ;  summer  schools  ;  text-books. 

Omaha,  Neb. — Boundaries ;  buildings  and  property ; 
claims;  finance;  heat  and  ventilation;  high  school;  judi- 
ciary ;  kindergarten ;  rules ;  salaries  ;  special  instruction  ; 
supplies  ;  teachers  and  examinations  ;  text-books. 

Lincoln,  Neb.  —  Finance  and  claims ;  teachers ;  high 
school ;  new  buildings  and  sites ;  care  of  buildings  and 
property ;  text-books ;  furniture  and  supplies ;  judiciary 
and  rules. 

Fall  River,  Mass. — Visitation  ;  evening  drawing  schools  ; 
finance  and  auditing  accounts ;  rules  and  regulations ; 
courses  of  study ;  high  schools ;  training  school ;  teachers ; 
books  and  supplies. 


44  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [44 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. — Rules  ;  school  law ;  buildings  and 
grounds  ;  finance ;  teachers  and  school  work. 

Augusta,  Ga. — Finance;  high  schools;  rules  and  regula- 
tions ;  text-books ;  examination  of  teachers ;  school  prop- 
erty; sanitary  affairs  ;  general  welfare ;  building. 

Youngstown,  0. — Teacher^  ;  finance  ;  discipline ;  libraries  ; 
building  and  supplies ;  text-books ;  course  of  study  and 
apparatus ;  claims ;  rules ;  penmanship  and  music ;  Ger- 
man ;  sanitation,  stoves,  and  ventilation  ;  grounds  and  sites  ; 
Rayen  School ;  also  sixteen  local  committees  on  school- 
houses. 

The  great  disadvantage  of  a  large  number  of  standing 
committees  is  the  tendency  of  the  duties  of  these  committees 
to  overlap  and  thus  work  confusion  of  responsibility.  Or 
there  is  danger  that  the  assignment  of  duties  may  not  be 
complete,  thus  leaving  business  unprovided  for.  The  last 
difficulty  is  easily  obviated  by  appointing  more  committees; 
but  this  leads  to  lessening  of  respect  for  the  importance  of 
committee  work  and  to  confusion  in  the  minds  of  those  who 
must  be  assigned  to  various  committees  of  widely  different 
functions.  With  a  small  board,  of  such  size  as  would  com- 
monly be  chosen  to  manage  the  affairs  of  a  financial,  com- 
mercial, or  industrial  corporation,  the  whole  difficulty  of 
numerous  committees  disappears.  This  is  one  of  the 
strongest  arguments  for  a  small  board  rather  than  a  large 
one. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  school  board  in  a  larger  city  has 
to  direct  a  volume  of  business  greater  than  that  which  is 
managed  by  most  of  the  largest  corporations  in  the  same 
city,  and  in  view  of  the  expert  service  rendered,  it  may  be 
well  to  consider  the  advisability  of  paying  fixed  salaries  for 
such  service.  Most  corporations  consider  it  good  economy 
to  pay  attractive  salaries  to  their  directors,  thus  securing  the 
best  men.  It  would  be  wasteful  for  great  business  organiza- 


,, 


45]  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  45 

tions  to  accept  the  services  of  any  but  the  very  shrewdest 
and  most  enterprising  directors  at  any  price  or  at  no  price. 
It  is  desirable  that  school  boards  should  be  made  up  of  men 
of  the  highest  professional  and  business  standing,  of  men 
whose  time  commands  a  high  value.  It  is  inevitable  that 
attention  to  school  affairs  should  interfere  with  the  usual 
occupations  of  members,  and  it  certainly  would  be  no  more 
than  fair  that  a  city  should  pay  for  the  valuable  service 
which  it  receives.  This  is  all  the  more  reasonable  since  the 
high  character  of  the  board  and  its  separation  from  politics 
forbids  its  members  to  receive  such  political  or  business 
advantages  as  are  sometimes  thought  to  result  from  connec- 
tion with  other  departments  of  the  city  government.  There 
are  already  precedents  for  salaried  boards.  San  Francisco 
pays  each  of  the  four  members  of  its  school  board  a  salary 
of  three  thousand  dollars  per  year,  and  they  are  supposed  to 
devote  themselves  exclusively  to  school  affairs.  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  fixes  the  compensation  of  the  seven  members  of 
its  board  at  ten  dollars  per  session,  provision  being  made 
that  the  annual  compensation  of  any  member  shall  not 
xceed  five  hundred  dollars.  Of  the  two  plans,  that  of 
Washington  seems  the  better,  since  it  secures  for  the  school 
board  men  of  affairs  with  broad  experience  and  in  touch 
with  many  interests ;  while  the  San  Francisco  plan  merely 
adds  four  more  specialists  to  the  department  of  education, 
and  a  school  board  is  chiefly  valuable  for  its  perspective  and 
many-sided  common  sense.20  One  of  its  special  functions  is 
to  balance  and  regulate  a  highly  specialized  department  of 
administration.21  Moreover,  a  salary  of  three  thousand  dol- 
lars per  year  will  not  command  the  entire  time  of  the  ablest 

20  Goodnow,  F.  J.,  Municipal  Problems,  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1897,  P-  2^4- 

21  See  The  Professional  and  Non- Professional  Bodies  in  our  School  System 
and  the  Proper  Function  of  Each,  A.  Lawrence  Lowell,  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1898, 
p.  999. 


46  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

men  of  a  large  city;  and  in  the  general  administration  of 
city  schools  it  is  quality  rather  than  quantity  of  service  that 
counts  for  most.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  study  to 
advocate  salaried  school  boards.  An  attempt  has  been 
made  to  show  that  the  payment  of  moderate  fees  for  actual 
service,  might,  under  some  circumstances,  be  the  wisest 
economy.  Of  course  the  payment  of  salaries  would  accom- 
pany the  appointing  of  small  boards,  and  would  doubtless 
encourage  a  permanence  of  membership  and  a  continuity  of 
policy  which  would  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  schools. 

In  addition  to  the  central  board  of  education,  several 
cities  have  local  or  district  boards  vested  with  considerable 
administrative  power.  Where  such  boards  are  properly 
subordinated  to  the  central  board,  they  may  be  of  advantage 
in  appealing  to  local  pride  and  stimulating  local  interest; 
but  want  of  such  subordination  has  caused  local  boards  to 
be  condemned.22 

In  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  there  are  thirty-nine  local  boards  of  six 
members  each,  two  members  being  elected  annually.23 
These  local  boards  have  power  to  levy  local  taxes ;  to  elect 
teachers ;  to  purchase  grounds ;  to  erect  school  buildings ; 
to  provide  school  equipments ;  to  employ  janitors ;  and  to 
elect  members  of  the  central  board  of  education.  It  is  very 
evident  that  these  local  boards  are  not  properly  subordinated 
to  the  central  board. 

In  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  are  forty-two  local  boards  of  school 
directors  of  twelve  members  each,  elected  by  popular  vote 
in  the  several  wards.  These  local  boards  determine  the 
grades  of  the  schools,  elect  the  teachers  of  the  elementary 
schools  and  assign  them  their  duties,  and  appoint  the  jani- 
tors, all  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  central  board.  As 

22  John  D.  Philbrick,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Circ.  of  Information,  1885,  p.  16. 

23  W.  T.  Harris,  N.  E.  A.,  1888,  p.  321.    Rep.  Concerning  Public  Schools  of 
City  of  Pittsburg,  1900,  p.  3. 


47]  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  47 

the  members  of  the  central  board  are  appointed  by  the 
judges  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  are  therefore 
independent  of  the  local  boards,  it  would  appear  that  the 
local  boards  are  completely  subordinate  to  the  central  board. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  no  secret  that  there  is  general  dissatisfac- 
tion in  Philadelphia  in  respect  to  the  local  boards.2*  It  is 
said  that  local  boards  have  interfered  with  promotions  against 
the  judgment  of  the  principal  to  prevent  the  dropping  of  a 
teacher  or  to  gratify  the  pride  of  some  patron  of  influence ; 
that  principals  have  suffered  from  the  meddling  of  ignorant 
and  domineering  directors ;  that  incompetent  teachers  have 
been  forced  upon  the  schools ;  and  that  local  boards  have 
arrayed  themselves  against  the  central  board  with  conse- 
quent friction  and  some  legal  contention.  Evidently  the 
proper  adjustment  of  the  local  board  to  general  school  ad- 
ministration is  not  to  be  found  in  Philadelphia. 

In  New  York  City  the  local  board  system  of  administra- 
tion has  passed  through  a  most  interesting  process  of  evolu- 
tion. It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  study  to  trace 
minutely  all  the  changing  powers  and  limitations  of  such 
boards.  Three  characteristic  periods  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  parts  which  these  boards  have  had  in  the  school  admin- 
istration of  New  York  City.  By  the  law  of  May  7,  1844, 
each  local  board,  consisting  of  two  commissioners,  two  in- 
spectors, and  five  trustees,25  were  authorized  to  purchase 
sites,  erect  and  equip  school  buildings,  and  furnish  supplies 
for  the  same ; 26  to  inspect  the  schools,  to  see  that  the  pro- 
visions of  the  law  relating  to  sectarian  instruction  were 
obeyed ; 2?  and  to  receive,  expend  and  account  for  money 
for  the  support  of  schools.28  Commissioners  and  inspectors 
were  authorized  to  examine  and  certificate  teachers,2?  and 

24  See  Annual  Rep.  Supt.  of  Public  Schools,  Philadelphia,  1895,  PP-  7  and  8- 

25  Law  of  May  7,  1844,  section  I.  86  Section  9. 

27  Section  13.  28  Section  23.  19  Section  27. 


4  8  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [48 

with  the  approval  of  the  board  of  education  to  annul  certifi- 
cates granted  by  themselves  or  their  predecessors.30  In- 
spectors and  trustees  were  to  visit  and  examine  schools  as 
to  condition  of  property,  progress  of  scholars,  order  and 
management ;  and  to  advise  and  direct  teachers  as  to  gov- 
ernment and  course  of  study  to  be  pursued.31  Trustees 
were  especially  empowered  to  have  charge  of  all  school 
property,  and  to  employ  and  pay  teachers.33  The  results 
of  such  a  ward  system  of  school  administration  would  not 
need  description,  even  if  common  report  had  not  made  them 
notorious.  A  comprehensive  statement  of  the  weaknesses 
and  abuses  of  the  system  has  been  made  in  a  memorial  33 
which  doubtless  had  great  influence  in  banishing  the  evils  of 
ward  administration.  Indeed,  by  the  adoption  of  a  report 34 
from  a  special  committee  to  which  the  memorial  was 
referred,  the  board  of  education  admitted  many  of  the  evils 
alleged  in  the  memorial,  but  endeavored  to  divert  attention 
away  from  any  connection  between  these  evils  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  local  boards.  Notwithstanding  the  strong 
hold  of  the  ward  system  upon  the  political  influence  of  New 
York  City,  the  state  legislature  by  enactment  of  April  27, 
1896,  abolished  the  office  of  ward  trustee  (from  date  of 
June  20,  1896)  and  transferred  most  of  the  powers  of  the 
local  boards  to  the  board  of  education.  To  maintain  local 
interest  in  schools  and  to  continue  some  measure  of  local 
supervision  over  them,  the  Mayor  was  authorized  to  appoint 
five  inspectors  of  common  schools  for  each  of  the  school  in- 
spection districts  into  which  the  board  of  education  was  re- 
quired to  divide  the  city .35  The  duties  of  these  district  in- 

30  Section  31.  81  Section  32.  82  Section  34. 

33  Memorial  of  Public  Education  Society  of  the  City  of  New  York  to  the  Boar  a 
.of  Education,  Feb.  6,  1889.  « 

34  Journal  of 'the  Board  of  Education,  City  of  New  York,  Mar.  6,  1889,  p.  262. 
85  N.  Y.  Laws  0/1896,  chapter  387,  section  6. 


THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  49 

specters,  as  defined  by  the  law 36  of  1 896,  were  continued  under 
the  law 37  of  1897,  an<^  were  as  follows:  to  examine  at  least 
•once  in  every  quarter  all  the  schools  in  their  several  districts 
as  to  regular  and  punctual  attendance  of  teachers  and  pupils ; 
the  number,  fidelity,  and  competency  of  teachers;  the 
studies,  progress,  order  and  discipline  of  pupils ;  the  clean- 
liness, safety,  warming,  ventilation,  and  comfort  of  the  school 
premises ;  and  as  to  violation  of  school  laws  in  respect  to 
sectarian  instruction  or  books  in  schools.  Boards  of  district 
inspectors  were  required  to  make  quarterly  reports  to  the 
board  of  education  in  respect  to  the  condition  of  the  schools, 
the  efficiency  of  the  teachers,  and  the  wants  of  their  districts, 
especially  in  regard  to  schools  and  school  premises.  It  will 
be  noted  that  these  inspectors  had  only  the  duty  of  observing 
and  reporting.  They  had  no  authority  to  suggest  or  recom- 
mend any  course  of  procedure  to  any  principal,  teacher,  jan- 
itor or  pupil,  or  even  to  protest  directly  against  any  wrong 
•or  abuse  which  they  might  discover.  The  contemptuous 
name  of  "  smelling  committee"  attached  itself  to  their  office, 
and  it  hardly  needs  to  be  added  that  large  numbers  of  the 
best  citizens  did  not  offer  themselves  for  this  service,  though 
some  accepted  it  and  did  faithful  work,  with  scant  encourage- 
ment^8 

By  the  legislative  enactment  of  April  22,  1901,  the 
charter  of  the  greater  City  of  New  York  was  revised. 
Borough  school  boards,  which  to  a  large  extent  had  con- 
tinued the  functions  of  the  old  city  boards  of  education  after 
the  consolidation  of  1897,  were  abolished.  A  central  board 

38  N.  Y.  Laws  0/1896,  chapter  387,  section  24. 

87  Ar.  Y.  Laws  of 1897,  chapter  378,  section  1098. 

38  By  provisions  of  its  new  charter  in  effect  March  I,  1902,  Baltimore,  Md., 
has  for  each  school  one  or  more  visitors  selected  from  among  those  living  or 
doing  business  within  half  a  mile  of  the  school.  The  duties  of  these  visitors  are 
similar  to  those  of  district  inspectors  in  New  York  from  1897  to  1902.  They 
liave  no  authority  over  school  management. 


5O 


MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


of  education  consisting  of  forty-six  members  was  created* 
and  the  entire  city  was  divided  into  forty-six  districts  with  a 
local  school  board  for  each.3?  Each  district  school  board 
consists  of  five  members  appointed  by  the  president  of  the 
borough,  a  member  of  the  board  of  education  appointed  by 
the  president  of  that  board,  and  a  district  superintendent  of 
schools  assigned  to  duty  in  that  district  by  the  city  superin- 
tendent. One  of  the  five  appointed  members  retires  each 
year.  In  addition  to  all  the  duties  of  observation  and 
reporting  entrusted  to  former  inspectors  of  schools,  the  local 
boards  are  required  to  report  to  the  board  of  education  any 
neglect  of  duty  on  the  part  of  the  city  superintendent,  the 
superintendent  of  school  buildings,  the  superintendent  of 
supplies,  or  any  subordinates  of  these  officers  appointed  or 
employed  by  the  board  of  education.  They  also  have 
power40  to  excuse  absences  of  teachers,  to  try  cases  in 
discipline,  to  try  charges  against  teachers,  to  prefer  charges 
against  janitors,  to  enforce  rules  for  sanitation,  to  transfer 
teachers  within  restricted  conditions,  and  to  authorize 
expenditure  of  money  for  clerical  assistance  and  for  the 
proper  performance  of  the  duties  of  the  board. 

As  each  local  board  represents  a  local  constituency  of 
about  seventy  thousand  people,  it  may  be  seen  that  power, 
responsibility,  and  opportunity  for  service  combine  to 
attract  a  superior  class  of  men  and  women  to  this  branch  of 
school  administration.  Considerable  attention  has  been 
given  to  this  study  of  local  boards  in  New  York  City,  since 
here  has  been  made  the  latest  and  most  hopeful  attempt  to 
solve  the  problem  of  obtaining  a  helpful  local  interest  in 
American  city  schools. 

This  problem  has  already  been  solved  in  France41  and  in 

39  A".  V.  Laws  ofigoi,  chapter  466,  section  1087. 
*°  N.  Y.  Laws  of/goi,  chapter  466,  section  1088. 

41  For  administrative  details,  see  Rapport  sur  I*  Organisation  de  I'Enseigne- 
ment  Primaire,  par.  C.  Bayet,  Paris,  1900,  p.  166. 


5  i  ]  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  5  j 

Germany  42  to  the  immeasurable  advantage  of  the  schools 
and  the  people. 

Says  Dr.  Albert  Shaw,«  speaking  of  the  local  or  arron- 
dissement  school  commissions  of  Paris :  "  It  is  enough  to 
say  that  the  municipal  council,  the  prefectorial  administra- 
tion, and  the  national  ministry  of  education  provide  all  the 
necessary  oversight;  while  in  the  arrondissements  and  the 
school  districts  themselves  there  are  local  organizations  that 
bring  the  citizens  and  parents  into  close  and  active  relations 
with  the  public  schools."  Referring  to  the  German 
Schools,44  he  says :  "  The  fresh  and  practical  character  of 
popular  education  in  German  cities  owes  very  much  to  the 
fact  that  in  addition  to  the  permanent  school  officials  who 
supervise  the  entire  educational  system  of  any  given  munici- 
pality there  are  numerous  local  school  boards  upon  which  a 
great  number  of  competent  citizens  are  asked  to  serve.  I 
am  sure  that,  so  far  as  elementary  education  is  concerned, 
our  American  cities  have  more  to  learn  from  the  methods 
and  results  attained  by  the  German  cities  than  we  have  to 
teach  them.  Our  progress  must  be  along  their  paths." 

The  experiment  in  local  school  administration  in  New 
York  City  resembles  the  French  and  German  systems  in 
assigning  the  care  of  external  and  material  conditions  to  the 
local  boards,  while  internal  and  pedagogic  affairs  are  con- 
trolled by  the  more  central  administration.  This  division  of 
responsibility  may  prove  worthy  of  adoption  in  other 
American  cities. 

42  Seeley,  L.,  The  Common  School  System  of  Germany,  Kellogg  &  Co.,  N.  Y., 
1896,  p.  62. 

48  Municipal  Government  in  Continental  Europe,  N.  Y.,  1897,  p.  121. 
« Ibid.,  p.  375. 


CHAPTER  III 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  EXTERNAL  OR  BUSINESS  AFFAIRS 

THERE  is  a  prevailing  tendency,  especially  in  small  cities, 
to  place  the  larger  business  interests  of  school  administra- 
tion in  the  hands  of  the  city  government.1  The  selection 
and  purchase  of  building  sites,  the  construction  of  buildings, 
the  letting  of  contracts,  the  appropriation  of  money  for 
school  affairs,  the  purchase  of  furniture  and  larger  supplies 
including  fuel,  and  even  the  appointment  and  superintend- 
ence of  janitors  are  matters  often  controlled  by  the  general 
municipal  government.  Such  diverting  of  power  and  re- 
sponsibility from  the  school  administration  is  to  be  deplored. 
For  the  sake  of  honesty,  efficiency,  and  economy,  such 
powers  should  be  conferred  upon  the  board  of  education. 

In  small  cities  and  in  most  cities  under  one  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants  the  business  of  the  school  department 
is  managed  by  special  committees  of  the  board  acting  alone 
or  in  conjunction  with  the  superintendent  of  schools ;  but  as 
the  business  management  of  the  department  in  larger  cities 
becomes  more  complex,  a  due  regard  to  economy  compels 
the  employment  of  an  expert  business  manager  or  several  of 
them  according  to  the  volume  of  business.  The  business 
administration  of  a  school  board  naturally  divides  itself  into 
three  departments ;  a  department  of  finance,  accounts,  and 
records;  a  department  of  construction,  repairing,  and  care 
of  buildings ;  and  a  department  of  school  supplies. 

The  first  of  these  departments  must  be  under  the  manage- 

1  See  tabulation  in  chapter  ii,  pp.  24-31. 
52  [52 


53  ]  EX  TERNAL  OR  B  U SIN  ESS  AFFAIRS  5  3 

ment  of  some  one  experienced  in  business  affairs,  who  should 
also  be  an  expert  accountant.  It  is  assumed  that  the  board 
of  education  will  not  have  been  humiliated  by  being  com. 
pelled  to  beg  the  city  government  for  money  to  carry  on  the 
work  of  the  department,  and  that  the  board  has  control  of  its 
own  funds.  It  is  immaterial  whether  the  board  is  the  actual 
custodian  of  the  money,  as  recently  in  New  York  City,  or 
whether  the  funds  are  deposited  in  a  common  city  treasury. 
The  need  of  exact  accounting  will  be  the  same.  The  board 
must  know  at  any  time  the  amounts  expended  for  each 
branch  of  department  work  and  the  amounts  of  unexpended 
balances  for  further  undertakings.  Even  in  a  small  city  the 
clerical  details  involved  in  such  exact  accounting  are  too 
numerous  for  any  member  of  the  board  or  any  committee  of 
the  board  to  take  care  of ;  and  in  the  larger  cities  the  duties 
of  this  department  would  occupy  the  working  force  of  a 
good-sized  bank. 

Conducting  the  large  correspondence  of  the  board  and 
keeping  and  publishing  the  records  of  proceedings  must  be 
provided  for  by  the  employment  of  a  competent  clerical  force. 

For  the  location,  designing  and  construction  of  a  modern 
city  school  building  the  services  of  an  experienced  engineer 
and  architect  are  indispensable.  There  are  two  ways  in 
which  his  services  are  commonly  obtained,  either  by  em- 
ploying such  an  engineer  and  architect  permanently,  or  by 
securing  his  services  from  time  to  time  as  need  may  require. 
Where  a  city  is  large  enough  to  warrant  it,  the  first  plan  is 
the  most  economical,  both  in  cost  and  in  quality  of  service. 
So  many  duties  in  addition  to  construction  of  buildings 
require  professional  supervision  that  generally  a  moderate- 
sized  city  can  well  afford  to  employ  an  engineer  and  archi- 
tect to  take  charge  of  the  department  of  buildings.  To 
show  the  variety  of  undertakings  assigned  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  buildings  the  following  list  of  his  duties  has  been 


54  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [54 

compiled  from  the  charters,  rules  and  regulations,  and 
reports  of  several  cities:  To  prepare  drawings  and  specifica- 
tions for  new  buildings ;  to  superintend  construction  of  new 
buildings  ;  to  superintend  advertisements  for  bids  and  letting 
of  contracts ;  to  inspect  and  recommend  acceptance  of  work 
in  process  of  construction ;  to  inspect  the  sanitary  condition 
of  every  school ;  to  inspect  heating  and  ventilation ;  to 
supervise  janitors  and  firemen;  to  nominate  janitors  and 
firemen ;  to  remove  any  or  all  employees  of  his  department, 
subject  to  appeal  to  the  board ;  to  see  that  suitable  fuel  is 
provided  and  economically  used ;  to  inspect  new  furniture 
and  see  that  it  is  according  to  contract ;  to  have  charge  of 
all  apparatus  and  furniture  and  see  that  it  is  properly  placed 
in  the  school  buildings ;  and  to  be  responsible  for  the  clean- 
liness of  all  school  buildings.  Not  the  least  among  the 
duties  of  the  superintendent  of  buildings  is  his  duty  to  be  a 
student  of  the  best  in  the  construction  and  sanitation  of 
school  buildings  the  world  over.  He  will  thus  become  in- 
creasingly valuable  to  the  city  from  year  to  year.  It  may 
be  seen  from  the  above  enumeration  of  duties  that  the 
superintendent  of  buildings  is  an  administrative  officer  carry- 
ing heavy  responsibilities.  His  position  demands  ability 
and  experience  combined  with  a  high  grade  of  professional 
training.  Some  of  his  undertakings  require  years  for  com- 
pletion. He  should,  therefore,  be  made  so  secure  in  his 
tenure  of  office  that  he  may  be  free  from  anxiety  on  account 
of  passing  changes  in  the  political  composition  of  the  board, 
to  the  end  that  he  may  be  judged  somewhat  by  finished 
specimens  of  his  work.  Practically  this  result  may  be 
accomplished  by  making  his  term  long,  after  a  suitable  pro- 
bationary period,  and  by  requiring  a  three-fourths  vote  of 
the  board  for  his  removal. 

Janitorial  service  in  school  buildings  is  a  matter  which 
deserves  the  most  careful  consideration,  since  the  health  and 


55]  -£  X  TERNAL  OR  B  U SI  NESS  A  J- 'FAIRS  5  5 

the  morals  of  the  children,  as  well  as  their  opportunities  for 
mental  improvement,  may  be  seriously  affected  by  improper 
care  of  the  buildings  or  by  association  with  persons  unfit  to 
be  about  the  schools.  Considerable  care  is  usually  exer- 
cised in  selecting  the  janitor  himself ;  but  unfortunately  in 
some  large  cities  it  is  considered  necessary  to  permit  the 
janitor  to  select  and  employ  his  own  assistants  in  order  that 
they  may  be  directly  responsible  to  him.  The  janitor  is  paid 
a  sum  sufficient  to  cover  his  own  salary  and  the  pay  of  his 
help.  This  inevitably  leads  to  the  employment  of  cheap 
labor,  so  that  the  janitor's  profits  may  be  as  large  as  possi- 
ble, without  regard  to  the  moral  or  physical  fitness  of  the 
employees  to  be  about  the  buildings.  This  padrone  system 
of  janitorial  service  is  unjust,  since  the  man  who  receives 
most  of  the  money  does  practically  none  of  the  work.  It  is 
possible  for  a  man,  with  influence  enough  to  secure  a  posi- 
tion as  janitor,  to  make  a  comfortable  living  by  supervising 
the  sweeping,  dusting,  and  shoveling  of  a  pair  of  simple- 
minded  old  people  who  are  glad  to  accept  any  place  and 
pittance  to  be  kept  off  the  street.  Thus  the  city  is  defrauded 
of  the  larger  part  of  the  money  which  it  expends  for  the 
care  of  the  school,  by  not  receiving  any  valuable  service  in 
return.  The  case  is  infinitely  worse,  however,  when  the 
janitor's  employees  prove  to  be  immoral  and  unfit  to  be 
associated  with  children.  In  a  dozen  or  more  of  the  cities 
reported  in  the  tabulation,  pp.  24-31,  the  janitor  is  said  not 
to  be  directly  responsible  to  the  principal  for  the  faithful 
performance  of  his  duty.  This  seems  to  be  an  unfortunate 
condition.  In  every  part  of  the  system  there  should  be 
present  at  all  times  one  person  representing  the  authority  of 
the  school  board  and  responsible  for  all  conditions  under 
which  the  children  work.  In  each  school  there  can  be  but 
one  such  responsible  head,  and  that  is  the  principal.  While 
janitors  may  be  protected  by  regulations  of  the  board  from 


5  6  MU NIC  [PAL  SCH  O  OL  ADMINISTRA  TION  [  5  Qt 

possible  unreasonable  requirements,  they  should  be  held 
responsible  for  co-operating  with  the  principal  to  the  fullest 
extent  for  the  comfort  and  welfare  of  the  school ;  and  it  seems 
unfortunate  that  a  board  of  education  should  undertake  to 
formulate  a  list  of  duties  to  which  the  janitor  can  point  and 
excuse  himself  for  not  performing  some  simple  and  neces- 
sary act  because  it  is  not  included  in  the  list.  It  is  well 
enough  for  the  board  to  prescribe  that  the  janitor  shall  do 
certain  acts  within  certain  times,  as,  for  example,  the  sweep- 
ing and  dusting  of  rooms  every  day  between  the  hours  three 
P.  M.  and  eight  A.  M.,  but  any  such  prescription  of  duty 
should  include  a  comprehensive  requirement  that  he  shall 
devote  his  entire  time  during  working  hours  to  active  ser 
vice  in  the  school ;  that  he  shall  be  responsible  for  a  proper 
use  of  and  suitable  order  in  such  halls,  basements,  or  other 
portions  of  the  school  premises,  as  the  teachers  employed  in 
class  rooms  cannot  control ;  and  that  he  shall  perform  such 
other  services  as  may  be  required  of  him  by  the  principal.2 
It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  in  detail  a  complete 
list  of  the  duties  of  a  principal  or  teacher.  Both  must  do  a 
thousand  things  never  enumerated.  Why  should  such 
enumeration  be  attempted  in  the  case  of  any  other 
employee? 

Probably  no  branch  of  school  administration  varies  so 
much  as  that  of  text-books  and  school  supplies.  In  most 
larger  cities  both  are  provided  free  to  the  pupil  at  the 
expense  of  the  city.  In  New  York  City,  supplies  are  pur- 
chased and  distributed  by  a  superintendent  of  supplies ;  in 
St.  Louis,  by  a  commissioner  of  supplies ;  in  Baltimore,  by 
the  secretary  of  the  board ;  in  Providence,  by  the  executive 

*  See  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Lincoln,  Nebraska, 
1900,  vii,  10. 

Also  Rules  and  Regulations  of  Board  of  Education,  Cincinnati,  1898,  Sec- 
tion 27. 


EXTERNAL  OR  BUSINESS  AFFAIRS  ^ 

committee  of  the  board ;  and  in  Fall  River,  by  the  com- 
mittee on  supplies.  These  cities  may  be  taken  as  types 
illustrating  the  relations  between  the  volume  of  business  and 
the  kind  of  agencies  through  which  it  is  transacted.  Evi- 
dently there  is  no  uniformity  of  procedure  in  the  handling 
of  supplies  in  various  cities  of  the  country  and  no  general 
conclusions  can  be  drawn  in  regard  to  the  matter.  This 
branch  of  administration  is  peculiarly  open  to  abuse  from 
the  desire  of  publishers  and  manufacturers  to  secure  busi- 
ness at  any  cost,  from  the  facility  with  which  wrong  doing 
in  the  matter  of  prices,  quality  of  goods,  and  special 
inducements  can  be  concealed,  and  from  the  weakness  of 
human  nature  in  the  purchasing  agent.  The  only  preven- 
tion for  corruption  at  this  point  seems  to  be  to  select  for  the 
department  of  supplies  the  most  trustworthy  persons  obtain- 
able, and  to  require  the  head  of  the  department  to  give 
heavy  bonds  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duty. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SUPERVISORY  ADMINISTRATION 

THE  office  of  city  superintendent  of  schools,  as  it  is  now 
known,  is  but  little  more  than  half  a  century  old  J  in  this 
country,  and  is  therefore  a  very  late  development  in  the 
system  of  school  administration.  The  superintendent  has 
been  compared  to  the  foreman  2  over  groups  of  laborers, 
the  superior  workman  who  is  selected  for  special  skill  and 
trustworthiness,  and  who  multiplies  his  value  many  times 
by  directing  the  work  of  others.  In  the  earlier  stages  of 
the  development  of  the  superintendent's  office  this  com- 
parison would  have  been  appropriate ;  but  the  modern  city 
superintendent  is  more  than  an  overseer.  He  is  a  captain 
of  industry,  as  writers  on  economics  use  the  term.  He  does 
not  merely  follow  the  directions  of  employers.  He  makes 
regulations  for  himself,  and  often  for  his  employers,  as  well 
as  for  subordinates.  He  not  only  concerns  himself  with 
supplying  the  demand  of  the  educational  market ;  but  he  is 
also  an  important  factor  in  moulding  public  opinion  to 
create  that  demand. 

The  qualifications  necessary  for  such  a  leader  in  educa- 
tional affairs  have  been  enumerated  in  a  most  comprehensive 
fashion  and  by  eminent  men.3  It  is  sufficient  here  to  men- 
tion six  qualifications  which  seem  absolutely  indispensable, 

1Gove,  A.,  Rep.  Com.  Ed.,  1899-1900,  p.  571. 

2  Pickard,  J.  L.,  School  Supervision,  Appleton  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1890,  p.  I. 
8  Committee  of  Fifteen,  pp.  200-226.     See  also   City  School  Administration, 
A.  P.  Marble,  Ed.  Rev.,  Sept.,  1894,  p.  154. 

58  [58 


5  9  ]  ^  W£^  VISOR  Y  AD  MINIS  TRA  TION  5  g 

namely,  a  good  moral  character,  a  good  physique,  common 
sense,  administrative  ability,  experience  in  school  work,  and 
a  liberal  education,  including  professional  training.  Given 
these  qualifications,  it  may  be  supposed  that  others  needed 
will  accompany  them,  or  that  the  possessor  of  these  has 
capacity  for  acquiring  the  rest.  By  reference  to  the  tabular 
conspectus  of  administration  in  the  second  chapter  of  this 
book,  it  may  be  seen  that  in  all  the  cities  except  five,  the 
superintendent  is  appointed  by  the  board  of  education.  In 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  he  is  appointed  by  the  director  and  con- 
firmed by  the  board.  In  Buffalo  and  San  Francisco,  he  is 
elected  by  popular  vote.  In  Norfolk,  Va.,  he  is  appointed 
by  the  state  board  of  education.  In  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  he  is 
elected  by  the  sub-district  directors.  The  custom  of  elec- 
tion by  the  board  is  so  nearly  general  that  only  brief  men- 
tion needs  to  be  made  of  the  faults  of  the  other  plans. 

The  office  of  superintendent  of  schools  is  too  important 
and  too  representative  of  popular  interests  to  be  left  at  the 
disposal  of  one  man,  and  that  man  selected  for  business 
ability,  but  not  necessarily  much  acquainted  with  educa- 
tional affairs.  Choosing  a  superintendent  by  popular  vote 
compels  him  to  be  a  politician  as  well  as  an  administrator 
and  pedagogical  expert.  These  are  qualities  rarely  blended 
in  the  same  individual,  and  the  community  has  much  need 
of  the  last  two  with  but  little  need  of  the  first.  Appoint- 
ment by  the  state  board  takes  away  the  right  of  local  con- 
trol, makes  the  superintendent  independent  of  the  approval 
of  the  community  which  he  serves,  and  discourages  local 
interest.  It  will  be  remarkable  if  any  of  these  peculiar  forms 
of  appointment  can  long  survive. 

The  term  of  office  for  which  a  superintendent  is  chosen  is 
extremely  variable  among  the  cities.  One  city  reports 
seven  years ;  another,  six ;  three  report  five  years ;  nine 
report  four  years ;  sixteen  report  three  years ;  sixteen  re- 


60  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [6O 

port  two  years ;  twenty-one  report  one  year;  and  nine,  no 
fixed  term.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  tenure  of 
office  of  superintendents  is  less  secure  in  cities  which  do  not 
fix  a  definite  length  for  his  term  than  in  those  which  do  fix 
such  a  limit.  Indeed,  his  tenure  of  office  is  probably  more 
secure  if  he  is  not  required  to  face  the  ordeal  of  an  annual 
election. 

The  question  of  a  limited  term  of  office  for  the  superin- 
tendent is  by  no  means  a  one-sided  question.  As  human 
nature  is  constituted,  there  is  a  certain  spur  to  the  superin- 
tendent in  the  fact  that  his  continuance  in  office  is  a  matter 
of  consideration  for  his  employers  at  stated  periods.  More- 
over the  board  of  education  charged  with  deciding  upon  the 
continuance  of  the  superintendent  feels  under  greater  obli- 
gation to  know  the  exact  quality  of  his  work.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  superintendent  is  embarassed  or  distressed  by 
his  approaching  election,  as  might  happen  in  case  of  trouble 
or  unfriendliness  arising  in  the  board  on  account  of  some 
necessary  discharge  of  an  unpleasant  official  duty,  then  his 
administration  must  suffer  also;  while  if  he  were  secure  in 
his  tenure  of  office  he  could  carry  on  his  work  without  the 
annoyance  of  influence  or  pressure  from  the  board  or  the 
community,  since  it  would  be  well  known  that  such  influence 
or  pressure  would  be  exerted  in  vain.  Moreover,  he  could 
command  the  confidence  and  respect  of  his  subordinates  in 
such  a  time  of  stress,  assured  that  time  and  a  sufficient 
opportunity  to  work  out  his  policy  consistently  would  com- 
pel the  approbation  of  the  board  and  the  community.  If  an 
approaching  election,  however,  made  his  dismissal  probable 
or  even  possible,  timidity,  distrust,  and  any  lurking  unfriend- 
liness in  the  teaching  staff  would  augment  his  difficulties, 
when  he  was  most  in  need  of  cordial  support. 

It  is  possible  to  combine  the  advantages  of  fixed  terms 
and  indefinite  tenure  of  office  by  electing  a  superintendent 


6 1  ]  SUPER  VISOR  Y  ADMINISTRA  TION  §  l 

for  a  probationary  term  of  three  or  four  years  with  the  pro- 
vision that  he  may  be  dismissed  at  any  time  in  that  period 
by  a  three-fourths  vote  of  the  board.  The  school  should  be 
guarded  against  possible  inefficiency  by  such  right  of  dis- 
missal, and  the  superintendent  should  be  assured  of  a 
reasonably  long  time  to  prove  himself.  At  the  end  of  his 
probationary  term,  a  majority  vote  of  the  board  might 
re-elect  him ;  but  a  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  vote  should 
be  required  for  his  dismissal.  The  duties  of  the  superin- 
tendent are  judicial  as  well  as  executive,  and  it  must  be  that 
the  conscientious  discharge  of  his  duty  will  sometimes  hurt 
and  offend.  To  secure  the  free  and  unbiased  action  of  his 
best  judgment,  he  should  be  made  as  secure  in  his  position 
as  are  other  judicial  officers.  As  President  Draper  ob- 
serves,4 "  The  superintendent  and  his  advisers  should  be  as 
secure  in  their  position  as  the  members  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  State." 

The  superintendent  is  the  administrative  and  pedagogical 
head  of  the  school  system  on  its  purely  educational  side. 
As  such  he  must  be  clothed  with  great  authority  and  must 
bear  correspondingly  great  responsibility.  He  need  not, 
and  if  wise,  will  not  be  an  autocrat.  He  needs  the  advice  of 
many  and  will  probably  seek  for  it;  but  the  responsibility  of 
decision  and  of  final  action  is  his,  nor  can  he  share  that 
responsibility  with  another. 

Among  the  most  important  duties  of  the  superintendent 
is  the  selection  of  teachers.  Excellent  judgment  in  this  part 
of  his  work  may  compensate  for  a  multitude  of  faults  in 
other  respects ;  for  good  teachers  will  make  good  schools, 
even  under  a  superintendent  who  is  neither  a  good  clerk, 
nor  a  good  lecturer  at  teachers'  meetings,  nor  a  model  class 
room  teacher  when  visiting  his  schools.  It  is  far  more 
important  that  the  superintendent  should  know  who  can  do 

*  Ar.  Y.  Education,  Feb.,  1898,  p.  391. 


62  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [$2 

good  class  work,  and  that  he  should  be  quick  to  recognize 
and  appreciate  such  work,  than  that  he  should  be  able  to  do 
it  himself.  A  majority  of  the  cities  investigated  in  this 
study  authorize  the  superintendent  to  nominate  teachers ; 
and  five,  Toledo,  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  Indianapolis,  and 
Waterbury,  Conn.,  leave  the  appointment  of  teachers  in  his 
hands.  The  plan  of  nomination  by  the  superintendent  and 
appointment  by  the  board  seems  wise  and  safe,  since  neither 
can  place  a  teacher  independently,  and  both  must  agree  as 
to  the  candidate's  fitness.  The  superintendent's  professional 
knowledge  and  experience  and  his  wide  acquaintance  with 
schools  and  teachers  in  other  cities  make  it  especially 
appropriate  that  he  should  take  the  initiative  in  selecting  a 
teacher.  The  chances  of  admitting  poor  teachers  to  the 
schools  are  very  much  lessened  by  leaving  the  actual 
appointing  power  with  the  board,  and  the  community  is 
likely  to  be  much  better  satisfied  with  teachers  who  have 
been  employed  by  representatives  of  local  public  opinion. 
Probably  most  superintendents  would  prefer  to  share  with 
the  board  the  responsibility  of  selecting  teachers,  and  the 
superintendent  who  would  not  desire  the  approving  vote  of 
the  board  upon  his  selections  would  be  the  very  one  whose 
judgment  needed  supplementing. 

The  making  of  the  course  of  study  belongs  to  the  super- 
intendent. The  board  has  no  special  knowledge  of  such 
matters,  and  principals  and  teachers  are  burdened  with  so 
many  matters  of  detail,  and  they  stand  so  close  to  their  work 
that  they  lose  perspective.  There  is  also  a  certain  amount 
of  unity  which  can  come  only  from  a  single  responsible 
head.  A  wise  superintendent,  however,  will  take  counsel 
of  his  board  and  of  principals  and  teachers  in  making  a 
course  of  study.  The  broad  and  general  experience  of  the 
one  body  and  the  minute  and  exact  knowledge  of  the  other 
will  be  of  great  use  to  him  who  knows  how  to  take  advantage 


63  J  SUPER  VISOR  Y  ADMINISTRA  TION  63 

of  both.  Teachers  may  be  expected  to  administer  a  course 
with  -better  understanding  and  better  courage,  if  they  have 
had  some  part  in  making  it,  and  there  are  local  conditions 
better  known  to  the  teachers  than  to  the  superintendent, 
which  should  be  taken  into  account.5  The  final  adoption  of 
the  course  of  study  is  safest  in  the  hands  of  the  board.  All 
that  has  been  said  in  reference  to  the  co-operation  of  the 
superintendent  and  the  teaching  force  in  making  the  course 
of  study  applies  equally  well  to  the  selection  of  text-books. 
Competition  in  the  making  and  selling  of  text-books  is  so 
keen,  and  the  representatives  of  publishing  houses  are  so 
aggressive  and  insistent  that  there  is  now  and  then  some 
danger  that,  in  the  battle  of  the  books,  the  children  may  be 
forgotten.  The  superintendent  is  likely  to  know  a  wider 
range  of  books  than  the  teachers ;  but  the  teachers  have  the 
advantage  of  knowing  the  children  best.  In  New  York  City 
a  plan  is  followed  which  works  very  satisfactorily.  Teachers, 
from  time  to  time,  recommend  that  certain  books  be  added 
to  the  list  of  supplies.  No  book  can  be  added  without  the 
approval  of  the  superintendents ;  but  when  a  book  is  once 
on  the  list  and  approved  by  the  board  of  education,  any 
principal  may  order  it  for  his  school.  It  may  happen  that 
two  or  more  books  on  a  given  subject  may  be  ordered  for 
different  classes  of  the  same  grade  in  one  school,  and  these 
books  may  be  exchanged  among  classes.  The  advantages 
of  this  plan  are  evident,  especially  in  supplementary  reading- 
matter.  As  each  book  must  have  the  approval  of  the  super- 
intendents and  the  board,  and  usually  that  of  a  considerable 
number  of  teachers  besides,  it  would  seem  almost  impossible 
for  a  poor  book  to  be  admitted  to  the  list.  It  should  be 
added  that  teachers  are  sometimes  invited  to  name  books 
which  ought  to  be  stricken  from  the  list,  and  that  the  list  is 
under  constant  revision. 

5  See  Report  of  Committee  on  School  Work,  N.  Y.  City  Teachers'  Association, 
p.  7,  J.  J.  Little  &  Co.,  1901. 


£4  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [64 

More  than  in  any  other  way  the  superintendent  wins  suc- 
cess for  his  administration  by  his  personal  and  official  rela- 
tions to  the  teaching  force.  He  must  serve  the  schools  and 
the  community  through  the  principals  and  the  teachers. 
Therefore,  from  the  time  when  he  collects  and  files  away  for 
reference  information  concerning  teachers  in  smaller  towns 
or  concerning  the  most  promising  students  in  the  local 
training-school,  even  to  the  time  when  he  regretfully  assists 
an  efficient  teacher  to  secure  promotion  to  a  larger  field  of 
service  outside  his  own  city,  his  personal  relations  to  the 
teacher  strongly  influence  the  school.  Through  him  the 
candidate  receives  the  first  impressions  of  the  school  sys- 
tem, and  in  her  mind  for  a  long  time  he  represents  that  sys- 
tem, and  stands  for  its  breadth  and  generosity  and  fairness. 
He  also  represents  its  discriminating  intelligence  and  justice. 
To  him,  alone  or  with  a  board  of  examiners,  falls  the  duty 
of  examining  candidates,  and  of  relieving  their  nervous  ap- 
prehension by  gentle  consideration  that  never  degenerates 
into  blind  pity  or  evasion  of  responsibility.  Nomination 
and  assignment  to  a  position  in  most  cities  are  received  at 
the  hands  of  the  superintendent.  The  teacher  knows  little 
or  nothing  of  the  board,  and  perhaps  for  months  or  years 
never  meets  one  of  its  members,  but  the  visible  representa- 
tion of  the  authority  of  the  board  is  the  superintendent. 

From  the  large  percentage  of  cities  reporting  that  princi- 
pals supervise  methods,  it  will  be  seen  (pp.  24-31)  that 
superintendents  commonly  accomplish  their  work  of  super- 
vision through  the  principals.  The  superintendent  fills  a 
place  like  that  of  the  consulting  physician  in  hospital  admin- 
istration, or  the  consulting  engineer  in  industrial  enterprises. 
He  gives  general  direction  and  supervision  to  the  work,  but 
wisely  leaves  details  to  those  whom  he  holds  responsible  for 
the  results.  He  cannot  properly  interfere  with  the  interior 
management  of  any  school,  except  to  correct  some  gross 


•65] 


SUPER  VISOR  Y  ADMJNJSTRA  TION 


and  obvious  fault ;  and  even  in  that  case  he  will  try  to  work 
through  the  principal,  unless  the  principal  compels  him  to 
pursue  some  other  course.  It  is  just  at  this  point  that 
human  weakness  is|likely  to  manifest  itself  in  the  superin- 
tendent, if  at  all.  He  has  the  undoubted  authority  to  give 
any  proper  directions  anywhere  within  the  school  system, 
and  the  temptation  to  accomplish  a  desirable  result  in  a 
simple  and  direct  manner  may  be  very  great.  Indeed  some 
loss  or  wrong  may  be  suffered  by  delay ;  but  a  far  greater 
loss  may  be  occasioned  by  interference,  and  the  superin- 
tendent may  show  himself  greater  in  self-restraint  than  in 
action.  Whenever  he  supersedes  the  authority  of  a  princi- 
pal or  teacher,  he  discredits  and  weakens  an  instrument 
through  which  he^ought  to  accomplish  his  best  service. 

The  superintendent  owes  to  his  teachers  the  benefit  of  the 
best  results  of  his  education,  professional  training,  and 
experience,  but  there  may  be  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  as 
to  the  best  manner  of  conferring  that  benefit.  His  wits  will 
be  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  discover  means  for  helping  his 
teachers  without  obtrusive  officiousness  or  offensive  patron- 
izing. It  will  often  happen  that  an  indirect  way  is  the  best. 
Teachers'  meetings  with  dogmatic  lectures  from  the  super- 
intendent are  wearisome ;  but  if  the  superintendent  is  shrewd 
enough  to  get  teachers  to  conduct  the  discussion,  there  will 
be  interest,  and  even  the  superintendent  may  learn  some- 
thing. The  superintendent  can  place  emphasis  on  almost 
any  phase  of?  school  work  by  praising  excellent  results  in 
that  special  work,  or  by  inviting  those  who  excel  to  explain 
their  manner  of  procedure  to  the  rest.  There  are  three 
classes  of  teachers,  with  each  of  which  the  superintendent 
has  special  duties.  He  must  use  the  excellent  to  encourage 
excellence.  The  good  must  be  sustained  and  advanced. 
The  poor  must  be  improved  or  removed  from  the  system. 
This  third  class  of  teachers  constitutes  the  greater  part  of 


66  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [66 

the  superintendent's  burden,  for  improvement  and  removal 
are  often  equally  difficult.  Social  affiliations,  public  sympa- 
thy, and  political  influence  are  the  weapons  of  the  inefficient 
teacher  for  holding  an  undeserved  position  ;  but  the  super- 
intendent must  disregard  all  of  these,  and  do  his  duty  in  the 
interest  of  the  children.  Sometimes  the  failure  of  a  teacher 
is  due  to  unfavorable  surroundings  which  may  be  remedied 
by  a  transfer  to  some  other  school.  The  superintendent  is 
bound  to  exhaust  every  means  to  give  a  poor  teacher  a 
chance  to  succeed ;  and  then,  if  failure  persists,  to  exhaust 
every  means  for  her  removal. 

The  superintendent  is  related  to  the  board  of  education 
as  the  lawyer  is  related  to  his  client.  Each  can  assist  the 
other  only  through  complete  confidence  and  frankness. 
Questions  under  consideration  may  be  of  a  delicate  nature, 
and  may  involve  the  professional  or  the  personal  reputation 
of  persons  connected  with  the  school  system ;  but,  though 
superintendent  and  board  alike  must  feel  an  obligation  to 
professional  secrecy  with  respect  to  the  world  at  large,  there 
can  be  no  such  secrecy  in  their  official  deliberations.  The 
superintendent  must  be  free  to  point  out  the  weakness  of 
the  inefficient  teacher,  or  the  unfitness  of  the  mentally  or 
morally  deficient  teacher,  without  liability  of  being  called  to 
account  for  plain  speaking  in  the  discharge  of  his  duty. 
Executive  sessions  of  the  board,  when  persons  are  under 
consideration,  are  not  undemocratic.  They  are  considerate 
of  the  individual  and  conserve  the  general  welfare  of  society. 
While  the  superintendent  derives  his  powers  from  the 
board  by  their  election  or  appointment,  he  must  be  to  a 
large  extent  independent  of  the  board  ;  and  his  independence 
must  be  protected  by  long  and  secure  tenure  of  office  pro- 
,  vided  by  state  law  in  the  city  charter,  and  by  statutory 
£  \  definition  of  acts  which  he  may  do  under  direct  authority  of 
the  state,  without  reference  to  the  authority  or  approval  of 


SUPER  VISOR  Y  ADMINISTRA  TION  fy 

the  board.  Such  acts,  for  example,  are  the  nomination  of 
teachers,  the  appointment  of  clerks  for  his  office,  the  nomi- 
nation of  supervisors  of  special  subjects,  the  preparation  and 
submitting  of  courses  of  study,  and  the  recommendation  of 
text-books  to  be  used.  With  such  independent  powers,  he 
can  control  the  pedagogical  administration  of  the  schools 
and  the  internal  affairs  of  his  own  office,  and  can  meet  his 
board  occasionally  upon  equal  terms  of  mutual  concessions ; 
but  without  such  powers,  he  is  merely  an  executive  clerk  of 
the  board. 

A  superintendent's  duties  do  not  end  with  the  board,  the 
teachers,  or  the  schools.  His  learning  and  experience,  as 
well  as  his  professional  opportunity  for  social  service,  impose 
upon  him  the  duty  of  a  share  in  the  social  leadership  of  his 
city,  and  entitle  him  to  the  privileges  of  the  highest  intellec- 
tual and  social  life.  If  he  accepts  anything  less  than  this,  he 
belittles  his  office,  and  discredits  his  calling. 

Twenty- six  cities  of  the  United  States  report  assistant  or 
associate  superintendents  with  numbers,  manner  of  appoint- 
ment, and  terms  of  office  as  indicated  in  the  following  table. 
Only  three  cities  report  that  assistant  superintendents  are 
nominated  by  the  city  superintendent.  The  same  reasons 
which  obtain  for  the  nomination  of  principals  and  teachers 
by  the  superintendent  would  also  apply  in  this  case.  The 
superintendent  is  better  qualified  than  any  member  of  the 
board  to  nominate  assistants  who  can  work  in  harmony  with 
him.  The  board  still  would  have  the  right  to  reject  any  of 
his  nominees,  and  could  exclude  any  objectionable  candi- 
date from  service. 

As  an  assistant  superintendent  is  likely  to  be  a  man  of 
fewer  years  and  of  less  experience  than  the  superintendent, 
he  may  well  have  a  longer  term  of  probation  and  a  less 
safely  guarded  tenure  of  office.  His  responsibility  is  much 
less  than  that  of  the  superintendent,  and  is  more  definite. 


68 


MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


[68 


So  long  as  the  superintendent  is  secure  in  his  position,  his 
associates  share  his  security. 


CITY, 

Number  of  Assistant 
Superintendents. 

£ 

1 

e 
• 

<u 

> 

.s 

B 

£ 

Remarks. 

I 
2 

6 

i 

2 

M 
2 

I 

2 
2 

2 

3 

5 

2 
2 

34 

3 

8 
4 

1 

4 
3 

i 

5 

2 
I 

Board. 
Board. 
Board. 
Board. 
Board. 
Supt. 

Board. 
Supt. 
Board. 

Supt. 
Board. 
Board. 
Board. 

Board. 
Board. 

Board. 
Board. 

Supt. 

Board. 
Board. 

:     Supt. 
j    Board. 
i    Board. 
1    Board. 
!    Board. 
!    Board. 

I 

2 

I 

2 

I 

During  pleasure 
of  Supt. 
i 
i 
Pleasure  of 
Board. 

i 

2 

3 

i 

Indefinite,  pleas- 
ure of  Board. 

6 

During  success- 
ful work. 
i 

i 

4 

2 

I 
Indefinite. 
i 

Appointed  by  Supt., 
confirmed  by  Board. 
Supervisors   of   Sub- 
jects. 
Nominated  by  Supt. 

8      Associate      City 
Supts.,  26  District 
Supts. 

Nominated  by  Supt. 
Nominated  by  Com- 
mittee on  Grammar 
and        Primary 
Schools. 

Nominated  by  Supt. 

Binghamton  N  Y  

Buffalo   N  Y  

Milwaukee  \Vts  • 

Newark  N  J  

New  York  N  Y  

Philadelphia,  Pa  .. 

St  Louis  Mo  

Troy  NY    

Washington   D  C  

In  the  largest  cities,  as  New  York,  Chicago,  Philadelphia, 
and  Boston,  where  there  are  considerable  numbers  of  assist- 


69]  S  UPER  VISOR  Y  ADM  INI S  TRA  TION  ftg 

ant  superintendents,  the  whole  territory  of  the  city  is  divided 
up  into  sections  or  districts,  one  assistant  superintendent 
being  assigned  to  each.  The  assistant  superintendent,  under 
such  circumstances,  has  the  oversight  of  a  body  of  schools  as 
large  as  would  be  found  in  a  good-sized  city.  He  becomes, 
for  all  routine  details  of  administration,  the  superintendent  of 
schools  for  his  section ;  while  the  city  superintendent  exer- 
cises general  control  over  the  whole  system.  It  is  obvious, 
then,  that  the  assistant  or  district  superintendent  ought  to 
have  independent  original  jurisdiction  in  matters  pertaining 
to  his  district  only ;  that  within  his  district  he  should  assign 
principals  and  teachers  to  schools ;  that  he  should  recom- 
mend promotions,  transfers,  or  discharges ;  and  should  be 
responsible  for  the  supervision  of  instruction  and  discipline. 
Within  these  limits  his  powers  should  be  independent  of  the 
city  superintendent,  who  should  have  only  appellate  juris- 
diction over  the  affairs  of  the  district.  When  matters  per- 
taining to  the  interests  of  a  given  district  are  under  consider- 
ation, the  district  superintendent  might  well  be  entitled  to  a 
seat  and  a  voice  in  the  board.  It  may  be  argued  that  he 
should  be  heard  through  the  city  superintendent,  and  that 
may  be  the  most  satisfactory  plan ;  but  there  is  danger  of 
reducing  an  assistant  superintendent  to  the  position  of  a 
mere  inspector  and  clerk,  thus  discrediting  him  as  an  official 
representative  of  the  authority  of  the  board,  and  at  the  same 
time  impairing  his  efficiency.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  efficient  assistant  is  the  possible  successor  of  his  superior, 
and  that  any  system  which  imposes  upon  subordinates  servile 
obedience  to  authority,  without  the  exercise  of  individual 
discretion,  is  not  making  provision  for  its  own  perpetuity. 
New  leaders  would  have  to  be  sought  outside  the  system, 
thus  robbing  each  ambitious  assistant  of  the  incentive  of 
possible  advancement,  and  entailing  the  inevitable  loss  and 
waste  of  sudden  and  radical  changes  in  plans  of  administra- 


7O  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [70 

tion,  whenever  a  new  city  superintendent  was  to  be  chosen. 
The  significance  of  the  marshal's  baton  in  the  private's 
knapsack  is  nowhere  greater  than  in  school  administration. 

To  the  department  of  supervision  belongs  the  enforcement 
of  laws  relative  to  compulsory  education  and  truancy.  From 
an  excellent  summary  of  these  laws6  it  appears  that  forty- 
three  states  have  made  statutory  provisions  concerning  these 
subjects.  The  youngest  age  at  which  children  are  required 
to  attend  school  is  six  years.  The  lower  limit  of  age  most 
common  is  eight  years.  With  the  exception  of  Wyoming, 
which  requires  all  unemployed  minors  above  six  years  of 
age  to  attend  school,  the  upward  limit  is  sixteen  years ;  and 
the  most  common  upward  limit  is  fourteen  years.  New 
York  stands  alone  in  providing  a  requirement  of  attendance 
which  varies  with  the  age  of  the  child.  From  eight  to 
twelve,  attendance  throughout  the  school  year  is  required 
by  the  law  of  New  York ;  from  twelve  to  fourteen  at  least 
eighty  days  per  year  must  be  spent  in  school  and  the  rest  of 
the  year  as  well,  if  the  child  is  not  employed;  and  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  children  who  are  not  employed  must 
attend  school.  The  reasonableness  and  flexibility  of  this 
law  are  worthy  of  note. 

Children  who  are  affected  by  compulsory  education  laws 
may  be  classified  in  three  groups :  Those  who  voluntarily 
absent  themselves  from  school ;  those  who  are  absent  by  the 
wish  of  parents  to  work  at  home  or  for  employers ;  and 
those  who  are  incorrigible  and  cannot  be  permitted  to  re- 
main in  the  ordinary  schools.  The  state  owes  to  itself  an 
especial  care  in  the  education  of  these  several  classes,  for 
from  them  come  the  great  majority  of  criminals 7  and 
paupers.  Statistics  show  that  the  illiterate  classes  furnish 

•Rep.  Com.  Ed.,  1899-190x3,  II,  2598. 

T  See  School  Statistics  and  Morals,  W.  T.  Harris,  Rep.  Com.  Ed.,  1898-9,  II, 
1329. 


7 1  ]  S  UPER  VIS  OR  Y  AD  MINIS  TRA  7  ION  j  l 

from  five  to  eight  times  more  criminals  per  thousand  than 
are  furnished  by  the  remaining  population.  When  it  is 
remembered  that  only  those  who  cannot  read  and  write  are 
classed  as  illiterates,  it  may  easily  be  imagined  that  the  very 
ignorant  classes  contribute  a  large  proportion  of  the  crimin- 
als who  are  not  classed  as  illiterate.  From  these  consider- 
ations both  the  danger  and  the  duty  of  the  state  are  plain. 

The  city  is  peculiarly  the  home  of  truancy.  The  extreme 
poverty  of  the  poor,  the  limitations  and  difficulty  of  personal  ^J 
acquaintance,  the  excitement  and  distraction  of  city  life,  the 
ease  of  concealment  for  wrong-doing,  and  the  preternatural 
sharpness  of  the  city  child,  all  combine  to  encourage 
truancy ;  and  no  part  of  the  city  school  administration 
demands  more  careful  management  than  this.8  In  general 
it  seems  to  be  recognized  that  truancy  is  more  in  the  nature 
of  a  defect  than  of  a  criminal  tendency  on  the  part  of  the 
child.  Insufficient  nutrition,  unsuitable  clothing,  lack  of 
proper  accommodations  and  hours  for  sleep,  and  bad  home 
influences  are  no  doubt  responsible  for  a  great  deal  of 
truancy.  Hence  in  most  cities  truants  are  not  treated  as 
criminals.  Educators  do  not  generally  believe  that  they 
should  be  arrested  by  a  policeman9  or  tried  in  open  court 
as  in  the  case  of  criminals.  Special  officers  are  provided 
for  cases  of  truancy,  and  their  cases  are  investigated  and 
heard  in  private.  Upon  conviction,  children  are  sent  to 
special  schools,  in  no  sense  penal  institutions,  where  they 
have  wholesome  surroundings  and  good  instruction.  It 
seems  to  be  the  policy  of  the  managers  to  adapt  the  course 
of  study  to  the  special  needs  of  the  delinquent  children. 
For  the  most  part  they  have  failed  in  the  studies  of  the 
ordinary  school  through  lack  of  interest  or  of  regular 

8  See  Detailed  Statements  Relating  to  Individual  Cities  or  Schools,  Rep.  Com. 
.Ed.,  1899-1900,  I,  120. 

9  Rep.  Com.  Fifteen,  pp.  200  to  226. 


72  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [72 

attendance,  or  through  lack  of  capacity  to  grasp  the 
abstract  teachings  of  books.  Manual  training  and  manual 
labor  in  various  forms  are,  therefore,  given  a  prominent 
place  in  the  curriculum.10 

Military  drill  is  used  to  inculcate  prompt  obedience,  and 
athletics  are  encouraged  to  give  zest  to  the  school  life. 
Early  hours  of  rising  and  retiring  are  required ;  the  pupil's 
time  is  so  fully  assigned  that  he  has  little  opportunity  for 
mischief-making ;  and  the  busy  but  varied  tasks  of  the  day 
have  put  him  in  condition  for  sound  sleep  at  night.  In  the 
larger  schools,  groups  of  boys  are  housed  in  small  separate 
dwellings,  according  to  the  so-called  "  cottage  plan,"  thus 
providing  for  classification  according  to  age  and  previous 
record  for  conduct.  Terms  of  commitment  usually  vary 
from  a  few  days  to  six  months,  and  the  term  in  most  cities 
may  be  shortened  by  good  behavior.  In  some  cities,  how- 
ever, commitment  may  be  for  the  remainder  of  compulsory 
school  age.11  In  New  York  State12  the  extreme  limit  of 
committment  is  "for  the  remainder  of  the  current  school 
year."  This  provision  seems  to  weaken  the  effect  of  the 
law,  since  the  greatest  temptation  to  truancy  comes  in  the 
warm  days  just  before  the  closing  of  the  summer  term,  and 
the  law  provides  practical  immunity  from  punishment  at 
that  time,  by  limiting  the  extreme  penalty  to  the  very  few 
remaining  days  of  the  school  year. 

In  view  of  the  salutary  effect  of  the  truant  schools  upon 
the  children  committed  to  them  and  the  deterrent  effect 
upon  others,  this  branch  of  school  administration  seems  to 
be  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  beneficent  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  city  superintendent. 

10  Rep.  Board  of  Ed.,  Chicago,  1897-8,  p.  69. 

11  See  Laws  of  Illinois,  Enactment  of  April  13,  1899,  Sec.   C;   also  General 
School  Laivs  of  Michigan,  1898,  p.  6S;  also  New  Jersey  School  Law,  1897,  p.  79. 

12  See  Laws  of  N.  Y.,  1896,  chapter  606. 


CHAPTER  V 

ADMINISTRATION   OF   INSTRUCTION   AND   DISCIPLINE 

WHATEVER  may  be  the  formal  rule  or  regulation  of  the 
board  of  education,  the  principal  is  in  fact  the  administrative 
and  pedagogical  head  of  the  school.  From  the  principal 
more  than  from  any  other  one  person  the  school  takes  its 
character  and  derives  its  success  or  failure.  A  high  degree 
of  excellence  in  character,  physique,  and  temperament  is 
demanded  by  the  principal's  responsible  position;  and  to 
these  qualifications  must  be  added  liberal  scholastic  and 
professional  equipment  and  experience. 

While  graduation  from  a  college  may  not  be  rigorously 
exacted  as  a  qualification  for  the  principalship  of  an  ele- 
mentary school,  the  full  equivalent  of  the  culture  and  dis- 
cipline implied  by  a  collegiate  course  may  well  be  re- 
quired. No  amount  of  academic  and  professional  training 
can  take  the  place  of  successful  experience  in  teaching  and 
in  subordinate  administrative  duties.  Administrative  ability 
cannot  be  imparted  by  lecture  or  rule,  or  tested  by  exam- 
ination. From  the  tabulation  in  Chapter  II,  it  seems  that 
principals  are  generally  nominated  by  the  superintendent; 
and  this  is  a  fortunate  arrangement,  since  the  superintend- 
ent has  full  opportunity  to  see  and  appreciate  the  evidences 
of  executive  ability  that  appear  in  each  teacher's  work. 
The  highest  credential  that  a  candidate  for  a  principalship 
can  possess  is  a  record  of  success  in  a  smaller  school  or  in 
class-room  or  department  work.  As  the  final  appointment 
of  a  principal  is  usually  made  by  the  board,  direct  responsi- 
73]  73 


74  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [74 

bility  to  the  board  attaches  to  the  position ;  and  it  is 
occasionally  recommended  that  principals  and  teachers  be 
represented  in  boards  of  education  by  one  of  their  number 
having  the  right  to  a  seat  and  a  voice  in  that  body,  but  with 
no  vote,1  or  that  bodies  of  principals  and  teachers  be  selected 
as  advisory  councils  to  represent  the  needs  and  interests  of 
the  schools  before  the  board.2  Teachers  are  thus  repre- 
sented in  school  boards  of  cities  in  France  3  and  Germany, 
much  to  the  general  advantage  of  the  schools. 

For  the  good  of  the  schools,  and  especially  for  protection 
against  any  possible  lack  of  adaptation  between  the  principal 
and  the  school  to  which  he  has  been  assigned,  a  reasonable 
probation  must  be  served  before  his  appointment  becomes 
permanent;  but  the  probation  period  once  past,  the  princi- 
pal will  do  all  the  better  if  he  is  granted  large  administrative 
liberty  within  the  limits  of  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the 
board.  It  is  fair  to  hold  the  principal  responsible  for  results 
rather  than  for  details  of  management. 

The  immediate  official  superior  of  the  principal  is  the 
superintendent.  In  general,  the  more  clearly  the  duties  of 
these  two  officers  are  defined,  the  better.  While  the  princi- 
pal is  undoubtedly  subordinate  to  the  superintendent  in  all 
matters  properly  within  the  superintendent's  sphere  of 
authority,  the  mutual  helpfulness  and  efficiency  of  both  is 
promoted  by  a  clear  definition  of  their  respective  powers 
and  responsibilities.  The  principal  must  be  loyal  to  the 
superintendent  and  to  the  administration.  He  must  use  his 
best  intelligence  to  understand  and  the  utmost  good-will  to 
execute  the  instructions  given  him.  While  the  principal 
may  have  a  broader  education  than  the  superintendent,  he 

1  Butler,  N.  M.,  Rep.  Com.  Fifteen,  p.  204. 

2  Eliot,   C.    W.,   Rep.   Com.  Fifteen,   p.    209.     Errant,   J.    W.,  Public   School 
Journal,  Sept.,  1897,  P-  3-     Lowell,  A.  L.,  Proceedings,  N.  E.  A.,  1898,  p.  1004. 

3Compayre,  G.,  Organisation  Pedigogique,  Paris,  1890,  p.  335. 


75] 


INSTRUCTION  AND  DISCIPLINE 


1 


must  bear  in  mind  that  the  superintendent  has  a  better  per- 
spective of  the  school  system  as  a  whole  than  any  other  per- 
son, and  his  judgment,  in  matters  of  general  administration, 
is  therefore  to  be  respected.  On  the  other  hand,  the  con- 
siderate and  skillful  superintendent  will  avoid  interference 
with  the  internal  administration  of  any  school  unless  posi- 
tively compelled  by  duty  to  make  such  interference. 

In  the  immediate  care  of  his  school  it  falls  to  the  principal 
to  assume  the  care  of  all  school  property,  including  buildings, 
grounds,  books,  and  supplies.  It  is  no  small  portion  of  his 
official  duty  to  see  that  these  material  conditions  of  a  good 
school  are  kept  in  the  best  condition  for  service.  Clean 
halls  and  rooms  well  warmed  and  aired  will  not  make  a  good 
school,  but  an  excellent  school  cannot  be  had  without  them. 
In  like  manner  well  kept  books  and  generous  supplies 
economically  distributed  and  carefully  used  go  a  long  way 
toward  making  a  good  school.  For  all  these  matters  of 
detail  the  principal  must  make  timely  provision.  These 
matters  are  as  essential  to  good  school  management  as  is 
careful  attention  to  the  commissary  department  to  good 
generalship. 

The  next  great  duty  of  the  principal  is  the  making  of  the 
school  program  and  assigning  of  teachers  to  departments  or 
grades.  To  make  a  program  that  shall  properly  intermix 
the  hard  and  easy  tasks  of  the  pupils,  assigning  the  first  to 
the  early  hours  and  the  latter  to  times  when  relaxation  and 
recreation  are  needed,  and  the  placing  of  teachers  with 
classes  which  need  the  special  stimulation  or  restraint  or 
direction  that  each  teacher  is  able  to  give,  and  the  doing  of 
all  this  well  in  advance  of  the  opening  term,  so  that  the 
machinery  of  the  school  shall  run  smoothly  from  the  first 
hour,  demands  something  very  like  the  practising  of  a  fine 
art.  But  this  well  done  gives  the  school  a  start  whose  effect 
is  felt  through  the  term  and  commands  the  confidence  of 


76  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

teachers  and  the  respect  of  pupils.  But  all  this  is  really 
preliminary  and  incidental  to  the  real  work  of  the  principal, 
which  begins  when  the  school  machinery  is  well  prepared, 
adjusted,  and  in  motion.  Then  the  principal  must  be  in 
every  part  of  the  school  with  sufficient  frequency  to  know 
precisely  what  sort  of  difficulties  are  met  and  what  sort  of 
work  is  done  in  each  class.  Without  obtrusiveness  or  inter- 
ference, he  can  become  so  much  a  part  of  each  class  that  his 
presence  is  no  more  a  source  of  distraction  than  is  that  of 
the  teacher  or  of  the  quietest  pupil.  He  may  fairly  gauge 
his  success  as  an  observer  by  the  extent  to  which  a  class 
ignores  his  presence,  and  goes  on  with  its  proper  work. 
Without  speaking  once  he  may  stimulate  the  interest  of  the 
class  by  a  genuine  interest  in  their  lesson.  The  children 
will  quickly  discover  both  his  interest  and  its  genuineness. 
An  occasional  question  from  the  principal  may  serve  to 
rouse  new  interest  on  t^he  part  of  the  class  or  to  place  em- 
phasis on  some  desirable  phase  of  teaching,  provided  that 
such  questions  are  simple  and  directly  in  line  with  the 
teacher's  development  of  the  lesson.  If  such  questions  tend 
to  take  the  lesson  out  of  the  teacher's  hands,  however,  the 
advantage  of  them  is  more  than  doubtful,  and  silence  would 
be  the  principal's  best  service.  In  this,  as  in  other  matters, 
that  principal  does  most  for  his  school  who  magnifies  the 
teacher's  office  most  and  his  own  office  least.  In  his  case  it 
is  particularly  true  that  "he  that  humbleth  himself  shall  be 
exalted."  Above  all,  the  skillful  principal  will  not  permit 
himself  to  make  the  faintest  suggestion  of  criticism  of  the 
teacher  before  the  class  or  in  the  presence  of  any  pupils, 
nor  will  he  assume  the  manner  of  a  critical  observer  of  the 
teacher  before  the  class.  Indeed,  his  best  method  of  observ- 
ing the  teacher  is  the  indirect  method  of  observing  the  class 
and  its  attitude  of  attention  and  interest.  Suggestion  and 
even  frank  and  kindly  criticism  may  be  necessary,  but 


77]  INSTRUCTION  AND  DISCIPLINE  77 

courtesy  and  a  desire  for  effectiveness  will  compel  such 
criticism  to  be  given  absolutely  in  private.  Unless  criticism 
can  be  offered  with  perfect  freedom  from  any  appearance  of 
impatience  or  bitterness,  it  may  better  not  be  offered  at  all. 
Direct  and  personal  criticism  may  often  be  avoided  by  com- 
mending certain  characteristics  of  an  excellent  teacher,  as 
for  example  a  quiet  and  distinct  manner  of  speaking,  the  use 
of  few  and  simple  questions,  or  refraining  from  talking  too 
much  in  class.  Often  the  principal  may  help  a  teacher  by 
arranging  so  that  she  may  visit  and  observe  another  teacher 
whose  manner  of  conducting  a  lesson  is  an  excellent  sugges- 
tion of  improvements  that  the  first  teacher  should  make. 

The  principal  must  be  the  teacher's  adviser  and  support 
in  discipline.  He  must  not  in  any  sense  supplant  the 
teacher's  authority  or  permit  a  pupil  to  obey  him  after 
having  defied  the  teacher.  The  principal's  authority  should 
be  employed  to  fortify  that  of  the  teacher,  and  any  case  of 
discipline  having  arisen  under  a  teacher  should  be  settled 
with  that  teacher  and  to  her  complete  satisfaction.  By 
virtue  of  his  position,  the  principal  may  compel  a  pupil  to 
make  such  a  satisfactory  settlement,  but  the  ultimate  sur- 
render should  be  to  the  teacher  and  not  to  the  principal. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  too  fre- 
quent appeals  to  the  principal  weaken  both  his  influence 
and  that  of  the  teacher.  Sending  to  the  office  is  an  easy 
way  to  secure  present  relief  at  the  expense  of  future  trouble. 
The  principal  is  in  duty  bound  to  defend  the  teacher  in  all 
matters  of  discipline,  unless  the  teacher  is  doing  a  manifest 
and  grievous  wrong,  and  even  then  he  will  try  to  secure  a 
stay  of  proceedings  till  he  can  advise  the  teacher  privately, 
and  secure  voluntary  right  action  on  the  teacher's  part;  but 
under  all  these  circumstances  he  must  so  manage  that  the 
teacher  has  the  utmost  confidence  in  his  loyalty  to  her  best 
interests,  and  that  he  will  defend  her  even  against  herself. 


78  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

The  principal  has  in  keeping  the  teacher's  professional 
reputation  and  must  defend  it  against  troublesome  pupils, 
dissatisfied  parents,  and  upon  occasion  against  the  adverse 
conclusions  of  superintendents  who  have  seen  her  work  with 
little  frequency  and  under  unfavorable  circumstances.  In 
the  hands  of  the  principal  also  are  the  teacher's  prospects 
for  advancement.  His  opinion  of  her  work  will  count  for 
more  than  that  of  any  other  person,  since  he  has  had  the 
best  opportunity  for  observing  it.  His  duty,  as  well  as  his 
desire  to  encourage  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  in  his 
staff  of  teachers,  will  impel  him  to  assist  in  the  advancement 
of  a  deserving  teacher,  even  though  he  lose  a  valuable 
helper  by  her  promotion.  It  also  becomes  the  duty  of  the 
principal  to  assist  in  the  removal  of  hopelessly  poor  teachers 
who  have  no  capacity  for  improvement.  It  is  quite  likely  to 
happen  that  he  must  take  the  initiative  in  that  process.  He 
must  call  attention  to  conspicuous  failure,  since  he  is  likely 
to  be  the  first  to  observe  it ;  and  if  he  cannot  bring  about 
improvement  and  reformation,  his  duty  is  clear. 

The  isolating  tendencies  of  city  life  have  robbed  the 
principal  of  some  opportunities  for  social  service  that  pre- 
vail in  village  and  rural  society.  Personal  interest  and 
neighborly  courtesies,  highly  appreciated  in  the  smaller 
communities,  would  be  mistaken  for  intrusive  officiousness 
in  the  large  city  unless  proffered  in  the  most  tactful  manner. 
The  highly  organized  structure  of  urban  society  divides  and 
distributes  social  obligations  so  completely  that  the  teacher 
and  principal  are  left  nearly  alone  with  only  the  routine 
duties  of  school  to  perform ;  and  the  community  expects  as 
little  social  service  of  them  as  of  policemen  and  firemen. 
No  doubt  school  men  and  school  women  are  largely  to 
blame  for  the  existence  of  this  state  of  affairs.  They  cer- 
tainly would  be  much  to  blame  for  its  permanent  continu- 
ance. Since  the  principal  of  a  city  school  cannot  approach 


79]  INSTRUCTION  AND  DISCIPLINE  jg 

the  people  of  his  neighborhood  in  a  semi-pastoral  capacity, 
presuming  upon  his  official  position  to  secure  him  a  welcome 
to  homes  or  social  gatherings,  he  must  find  some  indirect 
way  to  mingle  with  the  families  of  his  pupils.  To  accom- 
plish this  he  must  become  something  more  than  a  mere 
school-master.  He  must  become  a  part  of  the  political, 
social,  and  religious  life  of  his  neighborhood.  He  may  well 
sacrifice  something  of  convenience  and  comfort  for  the  sake 
of  living  among  the  people  whom  he  serves.  Facilities  for 
travel  and  the  separation  of  city  populations  into  groups 
according  to  race,  religion,  or  social  condition  often  relieve 
the  principal  from  the  necessity  of  living  near  his  school  or 
wholly  prevent  his  doing  so.  This  is  a  great  disadvantage 
to  the  school  and  to  the  principal,  from  the  standpoint  of 
social  service.  The  administration  might  well  put  a  premium 
upon  the  work  of  the  principal  who  has  the  courage  and  the 
devotion  to  live  near  his  school.  But  under  the  worst  con- 
ditions the  principal  may  reach  the  people  of  his  neighbor- 
hood through  the  children.  If  the  school  is  of  considerable 
size,  he  needs  no  wider  field  for  the  doing  of  all  that  his 
philanthropic  impulses  may  suggest.  There  are  the  sick, 
the  poor,  the  distressed,  the  unfortunate,  to  whom  the 
simplest  service  or  show  of  human  interest  is  most  grateful, 
and  through  these  the  principal  may  come  to  know  much  of 
the  social  life  of  his  neighborhood  that  is  most  to  his  ad- 
vantage to  know.  The  ability  to  make  a  practical  study  of 
the  sociology  of  his  community  is  as  indispensable  to  a  skill- 
ful manager  of  a  city  school,  as  are  the  arts  of  surveying  and 
assaying  to  a  mining  engineer. 

The  highly  specialized  organization  of  the  modern  city 
school  has  made  it  necessary  to  supplement  the  supervision 
of  the  principal  by  the  assistance  of  supervisors  of  special 
subjects,  as  music,  drawing,  and  physical  training.  These 
supervisors  are  appointed  as  other  teachers  are,  but  are 


£O  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [go 

.assigned  to  such  large  groups  of  schools  that  their  exercises 
with  a  given  school  or  class  come  somewhat  less  regularly 
and  frequently  than  most  of  the  so-called  regular  studies. 
This  fact  in  itself  makes  the  work  of  the  special  supervisor 
somewhat  difficult,  and  demands  for  him  special  considera- 
tion. The  supervisor  is  directly  responsible  to  the  superin- 
tendent and  through  him  to  the  board.  While  subordinate 
to  the  principal  in  administration,  the  supervisor  is  coordinate 
with  the  principal  in  matters  of  special  instruction,  since 
both  derive  their  authority  from  the  same  source.  In  rela- 
tion to  their  work,  supervisors  divide  themselves  into  two 
great  classes,  those  who  instruct  and  direct  teachers,  and 
those  who  to  a  considerable  extent  take  the  place  of  teachers, 
thus  becoming  mere  special  teachers  themselves.  The  first 
.are  of  course  by  far  the  more  valuable,  since  they  multiply 
their  own  efficiency  several  hundred  fold  and  add  permanent 
ability  to  the  entire  teaching  force  besides.  The  second 
-group  may  be  skillful  teachers,  but  as  they  come  but  infre- 
quently to  any  one  class,  their  results  are  dissipated  before 
the  next  special  lesson,  and  their  work  amounts  to  but  little. 
The  most  efficient  special  supervisor  is  the  one  who  teaches 
little  or  not  at  all ;  but  who  can  enthuse  or  inspire  a  body 
of  teachers  to  learn  the  special  subject  and  to  take  pride  in 
teaching  it  well. 

Last  and  most  important  of  all  the  special  agents  of  city 
school  administration  are  the  regular  teachers,  and  whoever 
would  attempt  to  describe  all  their  qualifications  and  duties 
might  well  hesitate  before  the  undertaking.  Fortunately 
the  present  task  is  far  more  humble  and  will  deal  only  with 
the  administrative  relations  of  teachers.  It  may  be  assumed 
that  any  city  will  demand  on  the  part  of  its  teachers,  a  high 
standard  of  moral  character,  with  sound  health,  good  man- 
ners, and  habitual  good  temper.  The  amount  of  academic 
and  professional  training  required  of  candidates  varies  from 


S  I  ]  INSTRUCTION  AND  DISCIPLINE  g  l 

high  standing  in  and  'graduation  from  the  local  high  school, 
to  graduation  from  high  school  plus  two  years  in  normal  or 
training  school,  including  practice  teaching  under  close 
supervision  and  criticism.  Generally,  however,  long  and 
successful  experience  is  accepted  in  lieu  of  professional 
training,  and  in  place  of  a  portion  of  the  maximum  require- 
ment in  academic  training.  Candidates  receive  certificates 
upon  examination  either  before  the  superintendent  alone  or 
the  superintendent  and  such  advisers  or  assistants  as  consti- 
tute an  examining  board.  From  the  results  of  examinations 
eligible  lists  are  constructed.  These  lists  may  be  used  in 
two  ways,  as  in  the  cities  of  Boston  and  New  York.  In  Bos- 
ton eligible  lists  are  drawn  from  as  superintendents  may 
choose,  and  they  have  the  widest  latitude  in  selection. 
They  are  not  bound  to  consider  any  case.  In  New  York 
only  the  three  highest  on  the  eligible  list  can  be  considered 
at  any  time,  and  each  eligible  list  must  be  exhausted  before 
another  can  be  taken  up.  For  good  reasons,  a  candidate 
under  consideration  may  be  dropped  from  the  eligible  list. 
The  Boston  plan  makes  possible  the  selection  of  the  best 
teachers  and  seems  to  lay  emphasis  upon  the  interests  of 
the  schools.  The  New  York  plan  compels  the  consideration 
of  each  candidate  approximately  in  the  order  of  standing  on 
the  eligible  list,  and  seems  designed  to  protect  the  interest 
of  the  candidate,  and  to  relieve  the  superintendents  and  the 
board  of  education  from  political  influence  or  social  pressure 
in  the  interests  of  any  applicants  for  positions. 

After  election  and  assignment  to  duty,  the  teacher'  owes 
undivided  allegiance  and  loyalty  to  the  administration  of 
which  she  is  a  part,  and  intelligent  self-interest  alone  would 
insure  such  loyalty.  She  will  doubtless  observe  many  mat- 
ters of  detail  in  which  she  could  suggest  improvements,  and 
under  the  most  fortunate  conditions  will  feel  perfectly  free 
to  recommend  such  improvements  at  the  right  time ;  but 


82  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [82 

until  changes  have  been  authorized,  it  is  her  duty  cheerfully 
to  accept  plans  of  work  as  she  finds  them  and  to  co-operate 
heartily  with  the  principal  and  other  teachers,  leaving  re- 
sponsibility with  those  to  whom  it  properly  belongs.  While 
in  a  social  and  personal  way  it  is  highly  desirable  that  the 
teacher  should  enjoy  the  acquaintance  of  the  superintend- 
ents and  members  of  the  board,  in  official  relations  all  trans- 
actions with  them  should  be  conducted  through  the  principal. 
This  policy  ought  to  be  insisted  upon  by  board  members, 
superintendents,  and  principals,  as  well  as  by  teachers.  As 
the  principal  owes  candor  and  loyal  support  to  the  teacher, 
so  does  the  teacher  owe  complete  frankness  and  openness  of 
conduct  to  him.  The  teacher  who  will  consciously  change 
a  single  step  in  the  conduct  of  a  recitation  or  other  exercise 
just  because  the  principal  has  entered  the  room,  and  with  a 
view  to  making  a  better  impression  on  him,  is  not  in  the  way 
of  doing  the  best  work  for  the  class  or  of  receiving  the  great- 
est help  from  the  principal.  Any  attempt  at  show  work  is 
pitifully  transparent  to  an  experienced  principal ;  or,  if  it 
deceives  him,  it  compels  him  to  work  through  the  hindrance 
of  a  body  of  misrepresentation,  before  he  can  be  of  any  real 
use  to  the  teacher.  Continued  successful  deception  would 
be  equally  unfortunate  for  teacher  and  principal;  for  the 
one  would  come  to  regard  solid  work  as  unnecessary,  and 
the  other  would  sooner  or  later  have  to  face  responsibility 
for  the  teacher's  failure. 

Reference  to  the  tabulation  in  Chapter  II  shows  that  per- 
manent tenure  of  office  for  teachers  is  treated  by  different 
cities  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  Some  cities  report  that 
tenure  of  office  is  practically  permanent  upon  election,  others 
report  periods  of  probation  of  three,  five,  and  seven  years. 
Few  conditions  that  affect  the  teacher's  profession  are  of 
greater  importance  than  tenure  of  office.  The  teacher 
\vhose  position  must  be  placed  in  jeopardy  by  annual  inspec- 


83]  WS  TR  UC TION  AND  DISCIPLINE  g  3 

tion  and  election  for  an  unlimited  period  of  years,  cannot 
enjoy  the  independence  and  contentment  which  is  conducive 
to  the  best  service.  Personal  friendship  or  personal  spite, 
political  influence  and  social  favor,  all  conspire  to  rob  the 
teacher's  position  of  security  and  dignity.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  often  so  hard  to  secure  the  removal  of  an  incom- 
petent teacher  that  the  community  is  entitled  to  the  protec- 
tion of  a  reasonable  probationary  service  before  tenure  of 
office  becomes  permanent.  It  would  be  well-nigh  impossible 
to  find  a  teacher  so  poor  that  pity  or  self-interest  would  not 
raise  for  her  a  host  of  defenders,  if  her  position  were  en- 
dangered. Hence  the  safety  of  the  teacher  and  of  the  city 
would  seem  to  be  best  conserved  by  requiring  a  term  of 
probation  of  from  three  to  five  years,  under  a  temporary 
license,  from  every  teacher  entering  the  system.  If  at  the 
end  of  any  stated  period,  during  probation,  the  teacher's  ser- 
vice did  not  appear  meritorious,  the  license  might  cease  to 
be  effective  through  lack  of  renewal,  and  the  teacher  would 
be  quietly  dropped  without  any  opportunity  for  bringing 
undue  influence  to  bear  upon  the  case.  But  the  successful 
teacher,  having  been  admitted  to  service  after  passing  a 
searching  examination,  and  having  demonstrated  capacity 
for  good  work  through  a  series  of  years,  is  entitled  to  the 
dignity  and  comfort  of  permanent  tenure.  Of  course  pro- 
vision must  be  made  against  the  time  when  the  efficiency  of 
an  old  teacher  must  cease,  and  the  board  must  have  author- 
ity to  confer  honorable  retirement  upon  teachers  worn  out 
in  the  service  of  the  city,  with  suitable  provision  for  respect- 
able support. 

As  suggested  in  the  case  of  principals,  the  teacher's  duties 
and  privileges  of  service  are  not  circumscribed  by  school 
hours  or  by  the  limits  of  the  school  premises,  and  special 
consideration  of  the  teacher's  larger  field  of  service  will  be 
had  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   SCHOOL  AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

EDUCATION  has  long  been  regarded  as  something  to  be 
accomplished/^  a  community  rather  than  by  it.  Teachers 
have  considered  themselves  hired  to  educate,  and  the  public 
has  assumed  that  teachers  are  paid  for  educating  and  that 
there  all  mutual  interest  and  obligation  end.  Teachers  and 
parents  alike  have  come  to  consider  that  active  parental 
interest  in  the  management  of  the  schools  is  unnecessary 
and  even  undesirable.  It  occasionally  happens  in  large  city 
schools  that  parents  who  seek  information  concerning  the 
conditions  under  which  their  children  work  or  for  an  oppor- 
tunity to  observe  those  conditions,  are  met  with  refusal  and 
are  compelled  to  abandon  their  quest,  or  a'ppeal  to  the 
school  superintendent  for  permission  to  see  the  surroundings 
among  which  their  children  spend  a  full  third  of  their  wak- 
ing hours.  Such  experiences  tend  to  drive  away  from  the 
school  such  parents  as  can  afford  to  patronize  private  insti- 
tutions, and  to  leave  only  the  children  of  the  poor  in  the 
public  schools.  This  is  exceedingly  unfortunate  for  rich 
and  poor  alike,  and  worst  of  all  for  the  public  schools  that 
need  the  moral  and  social  support  of  the  best  in  the  com- 
munity. 

For  years  and  centuries  Niagara  has  plunged  over  its 
cliffs,  a  magnificent  spectacle  of  power  run  wild.  Only 
within  a  very  few  years  has  it  occurred  to  any  one  to  use 
this  power  for  the  service  of  mankind.  In  like  manner  the 
power  of  public  sympathy  and  public  interest  has  been  lost 
84  [84 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY  §5 

to  the  cause  of  public  education,  because  no  inventive  genius 
has  been  found  to  correlate  the  two.  The  teacher  stands  so 
close  to  his  own  work  as  to  lose  the  benefit  of  perspective, 
and  the  busy  parent  stands  so  far  away  from  the  education 
of  his  child  as  to  lose  everything  but  perspective.  Teacher 
and  parent  must  supplement  each  other's  efforts  for  the 
greatest  good  of  the  child.  The  teacher,  bent  on  intellectual 
training,  has  overlooked  the  moral  and  esthetic  culture  of 
the  child  and  has  too  often  forgotten  even  reasonable  and 
safe  sanitary  conditions.  The  people,  ignorant  of  the  needs 
of  the  child  in  his  school  environment,  have  grumbled  at 
high  taxes  for  schools  and  have  regarded  the  conscientious 
teacher  who  complains  of  crowded  school  rooms  as  attempt- 
ing to  evade  work.  Hence  too  often  teacher  and  parent 
have  established  hostile  camps  over  against  each  other,  with 
the  unfortunate  children  between  the  lines,  exposed  to  the 
fire  of  both ;  and  the  school,  which  should  be  the  center  of 
the  moral,  intellectual,  and  esthetic  life  of  the  community, 
has  degenerated  into  a  weary,  grinding  mill  for  turning  out 
specimens  of  warped,  deformed,  one-sided  humanity. 

Mere  sentiment  for  co-operation  of  school  and  community 
is  of  no  value  except  as  expressed  in  action  under  wise  direc- 
tion. People  will  not  become  interested  in  schools  just 
because  professional  educators  see  that  their  interest  is  desir- 
able, nor  will  any  hastily  prepared  special  programs  of  showy 
fads  secure  an  abiding  public  interest.  The  needs  of  the 
school  and  its  just  demands  upon  the  life  and  power  of  the 
community  must  be  constantly  held  before  the  people,  and 
they  must  be  persuaded  to  contribute  thought,  and  labor, 
and  wealth  to  the  enrichment  of  their  children's  education. 
Just  here  the  professional  educator  will  be  tempted  to  do  too 
much  and  to  make  himself  too  conspicuous.  He  ordinarily 
must  originate  plans,  but  he  must  leave  to  others  their  ex- 
ecution, even  at  some  loss  in  the  quality  of  the  work  accom- 


86  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [86 

plished.  The  community  must  not  be  approached  to  be 
instructed,  but  to  participate  in  organization,  discussion,  and 
research.  Here  will  be  the  pedagogue's  most  trying  situa- 
tion. It  is  altogether  too  much  of  a  habit  with  him  to  teach. 

Probably  no  schools  of  this  country  have  ever  commanded 
a  more  genuine  interest  and  loyal  support  than  the  old  New 
England  Academies,  supported  by  tuitions.  Every  parent 
who  sent  a  few  hard-earned  dollars  to  such  a  school  with  his 
son  felt  himself  a  sort  of  stockholder  in  that  institution  and 
directly  interested  in  its  largest  success  and  good  reputation. 

The  modern  private  school  is  but  a  feeble  descendant  of 
the  old  academy  in  the  matter  of  individual  interest  on  the 
part  of  its  patrons ;  and  this  in  large  measure,  no  doubt,  is 
due  to  the  smaller  personal  sacrifice  at  which  the  rich  send 
their  children  to  the  private  school.  Very  true  it  is  in  edu- 
cational matters  that  where  one's  treasure  is  there  shall  his 
heart  be  also.  By  the  support  of  schools  from  funds  raised 
by  general  taxation  the  school  has  lost  much  of  the  helpful 
sympathy  of  the  community,  and  the  community  has  lost 
the  blessedness  of  directly  giving  its  money,  time,  and 
thought  to  one  of  its  most  valuable  institutions. 

In  a  few  scattered  cities  some  wise  efforts  have  been  made 
to  bring  the  school  and  the  community  into  vital  contact 
again.  In  1895,  Brookline,  Mass.,  organized  an  education 
society  composed  of  parents,  teachers,  and  other  citizens  in- 
terested in  education.  This  society *  established  large  stand- 
ing committees  on  child  study,  lectures,  art,  music,  science, 
physical  training,  school  libraries,  and  local  history.  Each 
committee  consisted  of  a  small  number  of  active  members 
and  a  larger  number  of  associate  members,  thus  insuring  re- 
sponsibility for  the  work  undertaken  and  a  large  general  in- 
terest in  it.  At  different  times  these  committees  provided 
lectures,  addresses,  musicals,  and  other  entertainments  con- 

1  Channing,  W.,  Beginnings  of  an  Education  Society,  Ed.  Rev.,  Nov.,  1897. 


THE  SCHOOL  AND   THE  COMMUNITY  g^ 

nected  with  their  various  subjects.  The  very  best  talent 
obtainable  was  thought  none  too  good  for  these  public  meet- 
ings, and  there  was  no  lack  of  general  interest  in  them. 
Understanding  the  needs  of  the  public  schools,  the  people  of 
Brookline  have  responded  to  every  demand  for  financial  as 
well  as  moral  support,  and  the  public  school  system  is  justly 
the  pride  of  the  town.  The  children  of  the  wealthy  find  the 
public  schools  good  enough  for  them,  and  the  children  of 
the  poor  have  all  the  advantages  of  culture  and  refinement 
in  the  best  schools  of  their  state.2 

The  best  work  in  other  cities,  St.  Paul,  Minn. ,3  for  ex- 
ample, seems  to  be  done  in  much  the  same  way  as  in 
Brookline.  Public  education  societies  have  been  organized 
in  New  York  and  in  Philadelphia4  which  seems  to  undertake 
rather  less  in  the  way  of  enlisting  popular  co-operation  than 
the  societies  in  Brookline  and  St.  Paul,  but  which  are  still 
doing  much  to  enrich  the  child's  life  in  the  Public  School. 

Something  of  the  work  attempted  by  the  Philadelphia 
association  may  be  inferred  from  a  list  of  its  standing  com- 
mittees. They  are  as  follows :  On  conference  with  the 
board  of  education,  on  laws,  on  schools,  on  kindergartens, 
and  on  household  economy.  Some  of  the  things  which  the 
association  has  done  or  has  helped  to  do  5  are  the  establish- 
ment of  a  department  of  superintendence  for  Philadelphia 
schools,  the  introduction  of  sewing  and  cooking  and  manual 
training,  the  reorganization  of  the  schools  under  supervising 
principals,  and  the  enactment  of  a  compulsory  education 
law.  From  the  above  statements  it  will  be  seen  that  the 

2  See  the  Brookline  Education  Society  Year  Books,  1895-96-97. 

3  Curtis,  V.  G.,  The  St.  Paul  Public  School  Union,  School  and  Home  Educa- 
tion, Bloomington,  111.,  Sept.,  1898. 

*  Harley,  L.  R.,  A  History  of  the  Public  Education  Association  of  Philadelphia, 
Phila.,  1896. 
s  Ibid.,  p.  38. 


88  M  UNICIPA  L  SCHO  OL  AD  MINIS  TRA  TION 

association  has  occupied  itself  with  matters  of  general 
administration  rather  than  with  direct  attempts  to  bring  the 
school  and  the  people  into  more  intimate  relations. 

The  corresponding  committees  of  the  New  York  Public 
Education  Association  are  those  on  school  visiting,  on 
school  affairs,  on  entertainment,  on  the  Tombs  school,  on 
art,  and  on  nature  material.  From  the  reports  of  these 
committees  it  is  evident  that  the  association  6  is  giving  the 
schools  of  the  city  a  great  deal  of  wholesome  supervision, 
and  is  operating  constructively  to  better  conditions  in  the 
schools ;  but  very  little  seems  to  have  been  done  to  arouse 
the  community  to  work  with  the  schools  for  mutual  help. 

The  free  lecture  system  of  the  department  of  education  in 
New  York  City  asks  no  aid  or  co-operation  on  the  part  of 
the  people,  and  seems,  therefore,  weak  and  ineffective  as  an 
educational  force,  when  compared  with  movements  that 
enlist  the  labor  and  sympathies  of  the  common  people. 
Free  lectures  may  be  doled  out  to  the  populace,  as  games 
and  shows  were  doled  out  to  the  mob  in  Rome ;  but  mere 
reception  of  amusement,  even  when  mingled  with  instruc- 
tion, cannot  develop  the  educational  strength  of  a  com 
munity. 

Institutions  of  little  pretense  but  of  great  educational 
effectiveness  are  the  Caisses  des  Ecoles  or  school  treasuries 
of  France,7  authorized  by  the  law  of  April  10,  1867,  and 
made  obligatory  in  every  commune  by  the  law  of  March  28, 
i882.8  These  organizations  receive  voluntary  contributions 
and  funds  supplied  by  the  commune,  the  department,  or  the 
state,  and  disburse  such  funds  for  providing  free  books  to 

6  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Education  Association,  N.  Y.,  1901. 

7  See  Gobron,  L.,  L? Enseignement  Public  et  Priv£  en  France,  Paris,  1900,  p. 
879  el  seq. 

8Bayet,  C.,  Rapport  sur  1} Organisation  et  la  Situation   de  L?  Enseigntment 
Prim  air e  Public  en  France,  Paris,  1900,  p.  188. 


' 


89]  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY  89 

poor  pupils,  for  furnishing  at  school  hot  lunches  for  the 
children  of  the  poor,  for  supplying  shoes  and  suitable  cloth- 
ing to  those  who  are  too  poor  to  buy  them,  and  to  give 
vacations  in  the  country  to  the  children  who  could  not 
otherwise  afford  them.  In  selecting  children  for  the  vaca- 
tions, the  sick  are  given  preference  over  the  strong  and  well. 
In  1898  the  poor  children  thus  favored  numbered  4,277,  and 
the  total  expense  of  their  vacations  was  about  $55,000.  The 
average  length  of  each  child's  visit  to  the  country  was  about 
three  weeks.  The  effects  of  these  outings  upon  the  children 
have  been  described  by  M.  Bayet,  director  of  primary  edu- 
cation,9 who  in  summing  up  his  statement  says:  "  These 
are  the  benefits  and  improvements  which  have  marked  the 
period  extending  from  1889  to  1899.  They  are  due  to  the 
city,  to  the  Caisses  des  Ecoles,  to  the  schoolmistresses  and 
the  schoolmasters,  acting  not  as  officials,  but  as  simple  citi- 
zens" Since  1874  Caisses  a"  Epargne  Scolaires,  or  school 
savings  banks,  have  increased  in  number  and  in  volume  of 
business  to  such  an  extent  that  in  1889  there  were  21,015 
such  depositors  with  472,229  personal  accounts,  and  accumu- 
lated funds  amounting  to  about  $2,600,000.  In  1897  the 
depositors  numbered  16,8/8,  with  327,999  accounts,  and 
funds  of  about  $2,000,000.  The  decline  of  this  system  since 
1889  is  not  an  indication  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  plan,  but 
is  rather  the  natural  result  of  a  better  form  of  co-operation 
for  which  the  school  banks  prepared  the  way.  In  1880 
there  was  established  in  Paris,  by  a  philanthropist  named 
Cave,  a  co-operative  organization  known  as  La  Mutualite 
Scolaire,  whose  title  might  be  translated  School  Mutual 
Benefit  Association.  This  association,  instead  of  receiving 
such  chance  sums  as  the  child  may  have,  requires  the 
systematic  saving  of  a  small  sum,  say  ten  centimes,  each 

9  Bayet,  C.,  Rapport  sur  D  Organization  et  la  Situation  de  L'Enseignement 
Primaire  Public  en  France,  Paris,  1900,  p.  603  et  seq. 


g0  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRA  TION  [90 

week.  Half  of  this  sum  is  credited  to  the  personal  account 
of  the  child,  to  be  drawn  again  with  interest,  and  half  of  it  is 
added  to  a  common  reserve  fund  from  which,  in  case  of  the 
child's  sickness,  his  family  receives  from  twenty-five  to  fifty 
centimes  per  day.  By  this  plan  three  desirable  objects  are 
gained  for  the  child,  the  habit  of  systematic  economy,  the 
comprehension  of  fraternal  association,  and  financial  relief  in 
case  of  sickness.  So  popular  has  the  new  association  be- 
come that  in  1899  it  had  a  membership  of  more  than 
300,000. 

Alumni  associations  have  fostered  the  interest  of  former 
pupils  and  have  given  them  the  opportunity  to  help  the 
social  work  of  the  school.  Musical,  literary,  and  gymnastic 
entertainments,  with  reading  rooms,  games,  and  opportuni- 
ties for  social  intercourse  have  attracted  graduates,  pupils, 
and  parents  to  the  schools.  Day  nurseries  and  maternal 
schools  for  the  children  of  the  poor  who  must  find  their 
daily  work  away  from  home,  and  extension  schools  for 
apprentices  who  have  left  school,  help  to  maintain  the 
mutual  interest  of  school  and  community  and  to  enforce  the 
lesson  that  each  exists  for  the  other.  After  commenting 
upon  all  these  forms  of  social  endeavor  supplementing  the 
work  of  the  schools,  M.  Bayet  adds : I0 

What  France  has  done  in  the  matter  of  arousing  local  in- 
terest in  public  education,  America  can  do ;  but  the  schools 
must  take  the  initiative  and  must  approach  and  interest  and 

10  Bayet,  C.,  Rapport  sur  D  Organization  et  la  Situation  de  DEnseignement 
Primaire  Public  en  France,  Paris,  1900,  p.  620. 

"  Popular  education,  under  all  these  forms,  has  for  the  first  time  in  our  country 
produced  the  result  of  permitting  private  initiative  to  place  itself  by  the  side  of 
the  administrative  and  professional  organization;  and  it  is  not  the  least  of  the 
services  rendered  by  elementary  education,  that  it  arouses  the  energy  of  the 
middle  classes  of  the  nation,  to  whom  the  *  to-morrow  of  the  school '  furnishes  a 
field  of  action  and  of  experience  where  they  may  delve  with  profound  labor  and 
scatter  seeds  for  the  harvest  of  the  future." 


91  j  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY  91 

attract  the  people.  The  school  must  have  something  to 
offer  in  the  way  of  conveniences  or  privileges  or  other  advan- 
tages, something  that  the  people  want.  Libraries,  reading 
rooms,  reception  rooms,  lecture  rooms,  and  even  well  regu- 
lated smoking  rooms  for  adults  might  make  the  school  a 
social  center  for  the  neighborhood  that  would  be  a  powerful 
rival  of  the  so-called  poor  man's  club,  the  saloon.  If  the 
school  is  to  undertake  social  service,  it  will  very  probably 
have  to  do  some  things  that  are  not  congenial  to  school  men 
and  still  less  congenial  to  school  women ;  but  service  is  not 
necessarily  associated  with  esthetic  pleasure,  though  ulti- 
mately it  may  lead  to  happiness. 

From  a  social  point  of  view  evening  lectures  in  school 
houses  may  be  abject  failures,  and  may  even  contribute  to 
the  deadening  social  apathy  of  cities,  by  showing  how  human 
beings  may  come  into  the  presence  of  one  another  under 
circumstances  which  ought  to  arouse  recognition  and  sym- 
pathy, and  then  go  away  again,  each  ignoring  the  existence 
of  the  other  in  a  manner  that  could  not  be  imitated  by  un- 
reasoning brutes.  But  if  an  evening  lecture  could  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  social  hour  during  which  a  considerable  number 
of  people  could  make  it  their  duty  to  introduce  neighbors 
who  have  lived  under  the  same  roof  for  some  months  or 
years  without  knowing  each  other's  names,  then  a  real  social 
service  would  have  been  done.  Mothers'  meetings  and 
meetings  of  parents  and  teachers  may  be  conducted  in  such 
a  way  that  the  parents  will  go  home  feeling  that  they  have 
been  lectured  and  patronized,  and  they  may  justly  feel  of- 
fended by  such  treatment;  but  if  parents  are  met  on  an 
equal  footing  for  purposes  of  a  genuine  conference,  both 
they  and  the  teachers  are  likely  to  learn  something  for  the 
advantage  of  their  children,  and  each  party  will  gain  a  higher 
respect  for  the  other.  If  conferences  of  this  sort  could  be 
addressed  by  parents  who  had  been  invited  to  study  the 


92  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [92 

schools  and  make  preparation  for  such  meetings,  general  in- 
terest in  the  conferences  would  be  assured,  and  there  is  little 
doubt  that  valuable  suggestions  would  be  made  and  misun- 
derstandings cleared  away.  It  is  very  probable  that  parents 
would  prefer  to  be  informed  and  advised,  part  of  the  time  at 
least,  by  one  of  their  own  number  rather  than  by  the  princi- 
pal or  the  teachers.  Few  things  interest  parents  more  than 
the  work  of  their  own  children ;  but  during  the  working 
hours  of  the  day  parents  cannot  take  time  to  visit  schools  to 
see  this  work.  Occasional  exhibitions  of  regular  work  well 
done,  and  not  mixed  with  any  show  productions,  would  at- 
tract parents  to  the  school.  The  fact  that  such  exhibitions 
were  to  be  made  from  time  to  time  would  be  an  incentive  to 
accuracy  and  neatness  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  in  his  daily 
tasks.  Some  kinds  of  work  like  manual  training,  sewing, 
cooking,  and  gymnastics  are  best  exhibited  by  pupils  en- 
gaged in  them  rather  than  by  displays  of  finished  products. 
Exhibitions  of  this  sort  of  work  would  have  the  double  ad- 
vantage of  bringing  parents  and  children  to  the  school 
together,  accompanied  by  interested  neighbors  and  friends. 
When,  in  1888,  the  schools  of  Philadelphia  made  an  exhibit 
of  their  work,  more  than  eighty  thousand  visitors  attended 
the  exhibition  in  four  days,  and  the  city  authorities  urged 
that  the  exhibition  be  continued  for  another  week;  but  this 
was  an  exhibition  for  the  whole  city.  Probably  more  good 
would  be  accomplished  by  exhibitions  conducted  in  the  in- 
dividual schools  several  times  per  year.  A  single  depart- 
ment, as  history,  manual  training,  or  natural  science,  would 
furnish  a  sufficient  exhibit  for  each  evening.  Visitors  would 
get  a  clear  and  complete  view  of  the  work  presented,  and 
there  would  be  time  for  a  social  hour. 

A  branch  of  social  service  much  neglected  by  city  schools 
is  that  of  home  visiting  by  the  teacher.  Even  sickness  and 
distress  or  even  death  in  the  home  obtains  no  recognition 


93] 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 


from  the  teacher  except  a  formal  note  of  inquiry  concerning 
the  pupil's  absence.  A  few  excellent  schools  and  teachers 
lay  great  stress  on  home  visiting  in  such  cases  ;  but  the 
great  majority,  like  the  priest  and  the  Levite,  "  pass  by  on 
the  other  side,"  losing  the  opportunities  of  lifetimes  for 
themselves  and  for  others.  The  fact  that  great  numbers  of 
people  in  the  city  have  no  church  connections  and  only  a 
narrow  circle  of  acquaintances,  with  no  pastoral  visiting, 
makes  the  demand  for  home  visiting  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  still  more  urgent.  True  it  is  that  so  much  attention 
to  the  social  side  of  a  teacher's  work  would  consume  a  great 
deal  of  time  ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  the  increased  interest 
and  willingness  of  children  would  compensate  in  a  consider- 
able degree  for  the  time  spent  in  their  homes. 

Many  pupils  are  compelled  to  leave  school  before  gradua- 
tion to  help  support  the  family.  The  school  may  do  good 
service  by  helping  them  to  obtain  good  situations.  A  boy 
or  girl  who  has  made  a  good  record  at  school  is  entitled  to 
the  benefit  of  that  record  ;  and  the  effect  upon  the  character 
of  the  school  will  be  marked,  if  it  is  known  that  no  pains  will 
be  spared  to  help  the  deserving  to  obtain  situations,  and 
that  no  sort  of  assistance  can  be  obtained  by  those  who  have 
proved  that  they  are  idle  and  unreliable.  Business  schools 
and  the  best  universities  interest  themselves  in  advancing 
their  graduates,  and  it  is  good  business  policy  for  them  to 
do  so.  In  like  manner  public  city  schools  will  secure  help 
and  appreciation,  if  they  keep  up  a  personal  interest  in  the 
boys  and  girls  who  have  graduated  or  otherwise  left  the 
school.  Alumni  associations  can  do  good  service  for  the 
elementary  and  high  schools  of  the  city  by  keeping  the 
school  informed  of  business  openings  for  those  who  need 
them.  The  graduates  are  in  a  position  to  know  of  vacancies, 
and  they  should  be  so  closely  in  touch  with  their  schools 
that  they  may  be  ready  to  assist  younger  graduates  in  find- 
.ing  work.  When  it  comes  to  be  understood  that  a  good 


0,4  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADM1NISTRA  TION  [  94 

school  record  has  a  high  value,  vigorous  efforts  to  obtain 
such  records  will  be  more  common.  In  this  matter  we  may 
learn  something  from  Germany,  where  school  and  university 
records  determine  preferment  in  after  life,  and  where  the 
school  work  of  boys  and  girls  is  regarded  as  something  more 
serious  than  with  us. 

If  the  school  and  the  home  can  be  well  correlated,  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  strong  centralization  may  be  enjoyed  without 
any  fear  of  possible  evil  consequences.  As  the  present  ten- 
dency in  this  country  seems  to  be  toward  centralization  of 
authority  in  school  affairs,  it  behooves  us  to  put  ourselves  in 
harmony  with  our  environment.  So  many  advantages  of 
uniformity  and  economy,  of  freedom  from  local  politics,  and 
of  facility  in  making  necessary  reforms  are  likely  to  be 
found  in  a  strongly  centralized  and  responsible  administra- 
tion that  the  tendency  will  probably  be  more  and  more  in 
that  direction.  This  tendency  will  surely  have  its  disadvan- 
tages. It  is  averse  to  our  general  policy  of  government  and 
will  therefore  meet  with  opposition.  Its  tendency  is  toward 
the  repression  of  the  individual  and  personal  initiative.  It 
lacks  general  power  of  quick  adaptation  to  local  needs. 
But  most  of  these  disadvantages  may  be  overcome  by  closer 
relations  between  the  schools  and  the  people ;  and  in  time 
it  may  be  discovered  that  a  centralized  power  in  school  ad- 
ministration is  practically  the  most  democratic,  in  best  pro- 
tecting the  interests  of  the  people  in  the  education  of  their 
children.  Unless  this  can  be  demonstrated  there  must  and 
will  be  a  return  to  the  old  decentralized  and  local  control  of 
schools,  for  the  one  thing  that  the  schools  cannot  perma- 
nently do  without  is  public  confidence  and  appreciation. 
Says  Superintendent  Marble :  "  "  There  can  be  no  good 
schools  where  the  citizens  are  not  anxious  to  have  good 
schools ;  and  interested  citizens  and  parents  are  almost  as 
essential  as  pupils  to  a  good  city  school  system." 

11  Marble,  A.  P.,  City  School  Administration,  Ed.  Rev.,  Sept.,  1894,  p.  154. 


CHAPTER  VII 

SUMMATION   AND   CONCLUSION 

IN  the  course  of  this  investigation  it  has  appeared  that  the 
steady  and  rapid  movement  of  population  in  the  United 
States  is  toward  the  cities ;  that  the  current  of  morals,  reli- 
gion, and  social  customs  is  from  the  city  toward  the 
country ;  that  the  politically  dominant  populations  of  cities, 
and  especially  of  large  cities,  are  heterogeneous,  largely 
foreign,  without  ownership  of  taxable  property,  and  irre- 
sponsible ;  and  that  the  state  contributes  largely  to  the  sup- 
port of  city  schools.  The  conclusions,  therefore,  seem 
unavoidable  that  the  city  is  not  a  safe  territorial  unit  for 
absolute  local  self  government;  and  that  the  state  has  the 
right  and  the  duty  to  control  the  essentials  of  city  govern- 
ment, and  particularly  such  municipal  administration  as 
determines  the  intelligence  and  morality  of  the  city  popula- 
tion. That  is  to  say,  the  state  violates  no  valid  principle  of 
democratic  home  rule,  when  it  prescribes  and  enforces 
certain  essential  requirements  of  public  education,  and  en- 
acts any  laws  necessary  thereto. 

The  testimony  of  educators  and  administrative  officers, 
without  one  dissenting  voice,  is  in  favor  of  separating  school 
administration  from  other  departments  of  municipal  govern- 
ment, to  the  end  that  schools  may  be  wholly  removed  from 
the  influence  of  politics.  For  this  purpose  the  state  must 
provide  for  the  selection  of  a  board  of  education  having 
independent  powers,  and  of  such  size  as  to  secure  fixed  re- 
sponsibility. To  prevent  sudden  and  disastrous  changes 
95]  95 


96  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [96 

of  administrative  policy,  members  of  the  board  must  have 
long  terms  of  office,  expiring  at  such  times  and  in  such  order 
that  sudden  changes  in  the  composition  of  the  board  will  be 
impossible.  The  consensus  of  expert  opinion  seems  to  be 
in  favor  of  small  boards  (5  to  6)  with  long  terms  of  office, 
and  with  the  retirement  of  a  small  minority  of  the  board  at 
each  season  of  appointment.  Since  responsibility  for  the 
management  of  a  board  can  be  definitely  fixed  upon  an 
appointing  power,  and  cannot  be  fixed  upon  the  general 
elective  body,  appointed  boards  seem  to  be  growing  in  favor 
with  students  of  administrative  problems,  although  the  pre- 
vailing practice,  as  yet,  is  to  elect  boards  by  popular  vote. 

The  great  body  of  routine  work  in  school  administration 
must  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  paid  experts.  ,  That  they  may 
do  their  duty  unbiased  by  pressure  or  influence,  their  powers 
and  duties  must  be  specifically  defined ;  and  in  matters  of 
detail  they  must  be  made  independent  of  the  administrative 
board.  Admission  to  such  expert  service  must  be  guarded 
by  most  exacting  requirements  and*  tests  combined  with  a 
reasonable  period  of  probationary  service;  but  when  once 
these  tests  are  passed  and  the  efficiency  of  the  administrative 
agent  is  proved,  his  position  should  be  made  so  secure  that 
only  the  concerted  action  of  a  very  large  majority  of  the 
board  can  remove  him  from  office. 

To  obtain  the  highest  quality  of  professional  service  from 
the  teaching  force,  the  independence  and  security  of  the. 
teachers  must  be  established  by  law  and  not  left  to  the  pass- 
ing mood  of  the  administrative  body.  Long  and  secure  ten- 
ure of  office  is  not  conferred  upon  judicial  officers  for  the 
sake  of  bestowing  personal  benefits  upon  those  officers^b'ut 
in  the  interests  of  the  people  who  need  their  impartial  deci- 
sions. In  like  manner,  a  plea  for  long  and  secure  tenure  of 
office  for  school  officers  is  not  a  plea  for  favor  or  kindness  to 
them,  but  for  the  benefit  of  the  people  whom  they  serve. 


97]  s  UMMA  TION  AND  \  CONCL  US  I  ON  Q  ~ 

The  final  and  perhaps  most  important  conclusion  of  this 
study  is  that  the  school  andjjthe  community  need  a  larger 
measure  of  mutual  interest  and  reciprocal  service.  Educa- 
tion cannot  be  accomplishedgfor  a  community  by  any  sys- 
tem of  school  administration  or  by  any  body  of  teachers, 
however  skillful  they  may  be.  Not  a  single  individual  can 
have  the  shortest  step  toward  real  education  taken  for  him. 
What  the  individual  does  for  himself  is  a  means  of  education. 
What  the  community  does  for  itself  contributes  to  social  cul- 
ture. ^  Therefore  every  class  in  the  community  should  have 
its  opportunity  to  contribute  to  the  social  development  of 
education.  The  rich  should|have  the  opportunity  to  give 
and  the  poor  to  do,  each  according  to  his  ability,  for  the  com- 
mon good.  Probablyjio  public  school  is*  so  well  equipped 
that  gifts  of  books,  pictures,  statuary,  scientific  apparatus, 
and  special  furnishings  for  social  work  would  not  be  accept- 
able ;  and  very  few  citizens  are  so  poor  that  they  could  not 
at  least  contribute  an  occasional  hour  of  assistance  to  an 
evening  social  center.  The  poorer  classes  would,  no  doubt, 
be  attracted  and  made  to  feel  at  home  by  the  very  opportu- 
nity to  render  such  assistance. 

The  schools  of  a  great  city  offer  peculiar  advantages  for 
social  education.  Smaller  cities  and  villages  have  their  r^eli- 
gious  and  fraternal  organizations;  which  include  almost  the 
whole  population ;  but  the  great  cities  leave  great  masses  of 
people  seemingly  to  live  and  die  by  themselves.  The 
schools  are  in  contact  with  these  masses  through  their  chil- 
dren. As  the  school  is  supported  at  public  expense,  its 
advances  toward  the  people  are  not  open  to  any  suspicion 
of  mercenary  or  other  selfish  motives.  As  no  legal  obliga- 
tion rests  upon  the  schools  to  attempt  other  than  prescribed 
duties,  efforts  for  social  betterment  must  be  recognized  at 
once  as  voluntary  and  unselfish.  What  -use  has  the  city 
school  made  of  its  great  opportunity?  What  use  will  it 
make? 


98 


MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


On  the  principle  that  giving  and  not  receiving  service  is  a 
means  of  culture,  the  persons  most  to  be  benefited  by  the 
social  activities  of  the  school  are  the  teachers  themselves^. 
and  no  class  of  people  is  in  greater  need  of  such  benefit. 
Confinement  to  a  narrow  round  of  duties,  always  associated 
with  immature  minds,  the  habit  of  exercising  authority  and 
requiring  implicit  and  instant  obedience,  the  nefvous  ex- 
haustion consequent  upon  enthusiastic  teaching,  gradually 
but  surely  tend  to  unfit  the  teacher  for  social  enjoyment. 
The  teacher,  therefore,  for  his  own  s'ake,  needs  contact  with 
the  people  ;  for  breadth  of  experience  and  of  sympathy  are 
as  essential  as  intellectual  attainments  to  the  ideal  teacher. 

Reformers  in  education  are  wont  to  say  that  the-  schools 
exist  for  the  children,  and  as  they  use  the  saying  it  is  emi- 
nently true  ;  but  in  a  larger  sense  the  schools  exist  for  the 
state  and  for  society,  and  school  administration  performs 
its  highest  duty  when  it  serves  the  children  with  the  active 
co-operation  of  the  community. 


APPENDIX 

THE  following  questions  were  addressed  to  superintend- 
ents or  other  school  officers  in  all  the  cities  of  the  United 
States  numbering  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  inhabi- 
tants, and  to  an  equal  number  of  cities  having  a  population 
nearest  to  fifty  thousand.  The  answers  to  the  first  seventeen 
questions  are  tabulated  in  Chapter  II.  The  eighteenth  ques- 
tion was  distinctly  noted,  in  an  accompanying  letter,  as 
confidential,  and  the  suggestions  contained  in  replies  are 
therefore  given  here  without  the  authors'  names. 

1.  What  authority  determines  the  amount  to  be  raised  for 
school  purposes? 

2.  Number  of  members  of  school  board? 

3.  How  is  gradual  change  in  membership  of  board  pro- 
vided for? 

4.  How  is  the  school  board  chosen? 

5.  Term  of  members  in  years? 

6.  Chosen  from  entire  city,  ward,  or  sub-district? 

7.  How  is  the  superintendent  of  schools  chosen? 

8.  Superintendent's  term  of  office  in  years? 

9.  Assistant  or  associate  superintendents, 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  How  chosen? 

(c)  Term  of  office? 

TO.  Do  principals  supervise  methods?     Do  they  teach? 

11.  How  are  teachers  nominated?     How  appointed? 

12.  How  are  teachers  certificated  ? 

13.  When  does  a  teacher's  tenure  of  office  become  prac- 
tically permanent? 

99]  99 


\oo  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [IOQ 

14.  To  what  extent  do  civil  service  rules  govern  the  ap- 
pointment, promotion  and  tenure  of  office  of  teachers? 

15.  What  officer  or  committee  immediately  authorizes  and 
superintends  the  construction  and  repairs  of  school  buildings? 

1 6.  By  whom  are  janitors  appointed? 

17.  Are   janitors    directly  responsible    to    principals    for 
faithful  performance  of  duty? 

1 8.  Will  you   mention   any  desirable   changes   from   the 
above  plans? 

REPLIES. 

There  are  several  changes  that  ought  to  be  made  in  our 
school  system : 

1.  "  The  members  of  the  board  should  be  elected  from  the 
city  at  large,  instead  of  from  districts.     Members    elected 
from  districts  feel  under  obligation  to  the  people  who  elected 
them  and  spend  too  much  of  their  time  legislating  for  their 
own  districts." 

2.  "The  term  of  office  of  the  school  board  should  be  in- 
creased from  two  to  four  years,  and  the  board  should  not 
contain  more  than  eight  members,  and  not  more  than  two 
members  should  go  out  in  any  one  year.     As  it  is  with  us 
now,  just  about  the  time  a  member  becomes  familiar  with 
the  duties  of  his  office  he  is  defeated  and  a  new  man  comes 
in,  and  it  takes  him  fully  two  years  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  system." 

3.  "While  I  am  not  an  advocate  of  'one  man  power'  in 
the  full  sense  of  the  term,  I  believe  all  principals  and  teach- 
ers ought  to  be  nominated  by  the  superintendent,  and  that 
appointments,  promotions  and  tenure  of  office  ought  to  de- 
pend entirely  upon  merit." 

4.  "  I  think  that  the  financial  and  business  affairs  of  the 
system  ought  to  be  handled  by  an  officer  elected  for  that 
purpose  and  that  the  superintendent  ought  to  have  nothing 
to  do  with  them  except  in  an  advisory  relation." 


101]  APPENDIX  IOI 

5.  "In   the   construction   of   school   buildings  the   board 
ought  to  employ  an  architect  who  is  thoroughly  familiar  with 
school  architecture  and  not  rely  upon  competitive  plans  and 
specifications ;   for  as    a  rule    the   plans   and    specifications 
which  are  the  best  are  not  selected,  as  there  is  always  more 
or  less  political  interference  and  wire-working  in  connection 
with  this  work.     If  the  school  board  had  one  man  to  look 
after  work  of  that  character,  who  was  paid  sufficient  salary 
to  justify  him  in  paying  attention  to  it,  I  think  it  would  prove 
a  good  investment." 

6.  "  Janitors  should  be  responsible  to  principals  and  the 
Supervisor  of  Buildings — to  the  principals  when  school  is  in 
session  and  to  the  Supervisor  when  not  in  session." 

"  Amount  to  be  raised  for  schools  should  be  left  entirely 
with  the  board  of  education." 

" Board  of  education  too  large  (14  now). 

Should  be  elected  "  at  large." 

Term  of  board  members  too  short. 

Janitors  should  be  appointed  by  school  board." 

"  One  member  of  board  should  retire  each  year." 

"  All  members  of  board  should  be  nominated  and  elected 
at  large." 

"  Permanent  tenure  for  teachers  and  superintendent. 

Superintendent  should  appoint  teachers." 

"  Tenure  of  office  of  competent  teachers  should  be  perma- 
nent during  good  behavior;  or  dismissal  should  be  subject 
to  revision  by  court  of  proper  jurisdiction." 

"  Superintendent  should  have  statutory  power  to  nomi- 
nate teachers." 

"  Board  should  have  power  to  divide  amount  to  be  raised 
for  support  of  schools." 

"  Smaller  board,  5  or  7  preferably  (now  9). 

Less  work  by  committees,  more  by  regular  officials  such 
as  general  manager  for  the  business,  and  janitors  should  be 
more  directly  responsible  to  principals  and  superintendent." 


IO2  MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  [IO2 

""Smaller  board  (now  30),  elected  at  large  or  appointed 
by  Mayor,  and  longer  term." 

"  Janitors  should  be  chosen  by  the  board  after  being  nomi- 
nated by  Superintendent  of  Buildings  and  Repairs." 

"  Superintendent  should  have  more  absolute  control  over 
janitors,  also  appointive  power." 

"  Longer  term  for  members  of  board." 

"A  central  board  of  education  consisting  of  about  25 
members,  appointed  from  the  city  at  large,  with  local  boards 
of  about  6  members,  having  some  control  of  the  details  of 
the  school,  but  not  the  power  to  appoint  teachers." 

"  A  board  of  7  or  9  elected  at  large  would  be  better  (now 
20).  Civil  service  rules  should  apply  to  appointment,  pro- 
motion, and  tenure  of  office  of  teachers.  Superintendent 
should  have  power  to  nominate  teachers ;  and  teachers  by 
definite  rules  should  be  held  responsible  for  the  good  con- 
duct of  the  schools,  subject  to  removal  in  case  work  is  not 
meritorious." 

"Should  be  a  smaller  board  (than  22),  appointed  for  a 
term  of  years,  one  member  retiring  every  two  years.  This 
and  the  consequent  changes  would  remedy  many  existing 
evils." 

"  Board  should  consist  of  not  more  than  7  members,  and 
be  elected  at  large. 

Board  should  have  full  charge  of  janitors  and  repairs. 

Superintendent  should  nominate  all  teachers." 

"  A  minimum  appropriation  for  support  of  schools  should 
be  designated  by  law,  so  as  to  secure  said  support  from  ad- 
verse action  of  supervisors." 

"There  should  be  a  longer  tenure  of  office  for  the  super- 
intendents (now  at  pleasure  of  board).  The  superintendent 
should  have  entire  control  of  appointment  of  teachers.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  the  permanent  employment  of 
teachers.  Teachers  should  be  free  from  repeated  exami- 
nations." 


103]  APPENDIX  I03 

"  A  supervisory  engineer  will  probably  be  appointed  for 
next  year." 

"Have  superintendent  elected  for  three  or  four  years; 
give  him  the  right  to  nominate  teachers.  Have  teachers 
appointed  during  good  behavior  after  reasonable  probation. 
Give  principals  half  time  for  supervising." 

"Board  unnecessarily  large  (37). 

One  board  of  education,  one  superintendent,  and  the  same 
rules  and  regulations  to  have  authority  over  the  entire  area 
of  the  county,  including  the  city  which  is  the  county  seat. 
The  same  regulations  should  apply  to  the  teachers  in  the 
rural  districts  as  in  the  city." 

"  Only  part  of  the  board  should  retire  at  one  time. 

Election  of  the  board  should  be  by  the  people  at  large 
instead  of  by  wards.  Members  should  hold  office  for  four 
years  (now  two  years)." 

"Smaller  board  (27),  fewer  committees,  more  consolida- 
tion and  centralization  of  power." 

"  Our  board  should  have  authority  to  levy  school  tax. 
Principals  of  eight-room  buildings  or  larger  should  not  have 
charge  of  a  grade.  Term  of  superintendent  too  short,  should 
be  unlimited." 

"The  law  provides  that  no  appointment  of  a  teacher  can 
be  made  effective  beyond  the  3Oth  day  of  June  following. 
This  feature  of  the  law  should  be  eliminated,  I  believe,  in 
order  that  appointment  may  become  practically  permanent." 

"  All  repairs  to  school  buildings  should  be  placed  under 
the  direction  of  the  school  board  rather  than  the  Inspector 
of  Public  Buildings." 

"  At  present  the  president  of  the  board  is  elected  by  the 
people.  The  board  should  choose  its  own  president." 

"Fewer  members  in  board  (now  21)  and  selection  from 
city  at  large." 


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OF  TH 

UNIVERSITY 


VITA. 


THE  writer  of  this  paper  was  born  in  Jay,  Franklin  County, 
Maine,  August  i,  1860.  The  following  is  his  scholastic  re- 
cord:  Student  in  Wesleyan  University,  1880-83;  principal 
of  Foxcroft  Academy,  Foxcroft,  Maine,  1883-84;  principal 
of  Hanover  Grammar  School,  Meriden,  Conn.,  1884-88; 
student  in  Wesleyan  University,  graduating  with  the  degree 
of  A.  B.,  1888-89;  assistant  principal  New  Britain,  Conn, 
high  school,  1889-93;  master  in  the  Newton,  Mass.,  high 
school,  1 893-97  >  first  assistant  in  the  DeWitt  Clinton  High 
School,  New  York  City,  1897-99;  first  assistant  and  teacher 
in  charge  of  annex,  Morris  High  School,  New  York  City, 
1 899-  ;  student  in  chemistry,  Harvard  University,  summer 
of  1894;  assistant  in  chemistry,  Harvard  University,  sum- 
mer of  1896;  graduate  student,  School  of  Philosophy, 
Columbia  University,  1897-1902;  associate  examiner  in 
physics,  College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  1900-  . 

(107) 


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